THE  IMPEOVEMEI^T 

OF  THE 

HEALTH  OF  CHILDREN  AND  ADULTS 
BY  NATURAL  MEANS. 

IITCLUDING 

A  HISTORY  OF  FOOD 

AND  A 

CONSIDERATIOlSr  OF  ITS  SUBSTAKTIAL  QUALITIES. 

BY 

J^MES    K^^IGMIT,  M.33., 

MEMBER  OF  THK  MEDIOO-CHIRURGICAI.  FACULTY  OP  MARYLAND,  OF  THE  DISTHTCT  MEDICAL  SOCIETY 
OF  OHIO,  AND  OF  THE  COUNTY  AND  CITY  MEDICAL  SOCIETY  OF  NEW  YORK  ;  AND 
PHYSICIAN  AND  SURGEON  TO  THE  INSTITUTION  FOR  THE  RELIEF 
OF  THE  RUPTURED  AND  CRIPPLED,  NEW  YORK. 


NEW  YORK: 
G.    P.    PUTNAM'S  SOKg, 

TWENTY-THIRD    STREET    AND    FOURTH  AVENUE. 

18  75. 


ExTi-JKBD,  accor-ling  to  Act  of  Co;:gi-css,  ia  the  year  1SG3,  by 

JAMES  KNiaUT,  M.D., 

In  tilt  Clerk's  onice  of  the  District  Court  of  tlie  United  States  for  the  Soutliern 
D;stvict  cf  Ke-v-^York. 


e/3 

REMOTE  STORAGE 


PEEFACB. 


The  principal  object  of  this  work  is  to  present  to  the 
public  intelligible  information,  deduced  from  well-deter- 
mined facts,  upon  the  best  means  adapted  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  physical  condition  of  delicate  children, 
and  for  the  maintenance  through  life  of  a  tolerable  con- 
dition of  good  health. 

To  render  this  information  as  comprehensible  as  pos- 
sible, the  book  opens  with  a  premise  of  the  various  un- 
favorable influences  that  tend  to  the  enervation  of  the 
physical  powers  of  parents  ;  and  this  is  followed  by  an 
outline  of  man's  organization,  development,  and  proper 
sustenance,  and  by  an  elucidation  of  the  relations  which 
exist  between  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  w^hence 
his  subsistence  is  obtained. 

In  treating  of  these,  the  author  has,  in  addition  to 
the  recital  of  his  practical  experience,  availed  himself  of 
the  most  favorably  noted  publications  on  physiology  and 
chemistry,  simplifying  their  language  in  the  hope  of  being 
thus  able  to  facilitate  a  profitable  j^erusal  by  the  unsci- 
entific reader,  and  to  induce  him  to  make  practical  ap- 
plication of  those  modern  discoveries  that  tend  to  the 
improvement  of  his  physical  condition. 

Private  hygiene  claims  a  more  general  consideration 
than  is  usually  given  it  by  families  and  individuals ;  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  good  normal  state  of  health  is 


iv 


PREFACE. 


possible  if  a  proper  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  ac- 
quired. Therefore,  to  this  end,  much  habor  has  been 
expended  in  the  selection  of  the  reliable  information 
which  will  be  found  in  these  pages.  Tiiis  work,  however, 
is  not  intended  to  supplant  the  invaluable  services  of  ex- 
perienced physicians  and  surgeons,  whose  skill  must  be 
relied  on  in  arresting  the  encroachments  of  disease.  It 
is  designed  wholly  as  an  index  to  the  best  means  of  im- 
proving the  physical  condition  of  our  degenerating  race, 
by  pointing  out  to  the  heads  of  families  and  individuals 
the  prudential  practice  that  will  tend  most  directly  to 
the  increase  and  maintenance  of  vital  or  living  force,  so 
as  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  influences  of  unavoidable 
contingencies  inimical  to  health. 

To  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  tedium  of  dry,  di- 
dactic reading,  interesting  historical  incidents,  relating 
more  directly  to  the  food  of  man,  have  been  somewhat 
freely  interspersed  through  some  of  the  chapters ;  and 
information,  w^iicli  can  not  fliil  to  be  of  use,  is  given 
u23on  the  most  improved  means  of  preserving  food  in  a 
wholesome  form  for  consumption  at  times  when  it  can 
not  readily  be  obtained  fresh  ;  while  it  terminates  with 
a  few  practical  remarks  on  air,  temperature,  bathing,  ex- 
ercise, and  clothing,  and  with  instructions  in  the  means 
of  arresting  bleeding  from  accidental  causes,  and  in  the 
most  elfectual  methods  of  restoring  suspended  animation. 
In  a  Avord,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  present,  in  as  com- 
pact yet  com^Dlete  a  form  as  possible,  important  informa- 
tion that,  if  heeded,  will  obviate  many  of  the  ills  of  life 
to  which  the  human  family  is  constantly  exposed. 

New-York,  May,  1868, 


SECom  Editioe^. 


The  very  favorable  reception  of  the  first  edition  of  this 
work,  and  a  renewed  demand  for  co|)ies,  induced  the  publish- 
er to  advise  the  author  to  permit  them  to  publish  a  second 
edition  in  a  more  acceptable  form  than  the  first.  To  their 
suggestion  we  have  consented,  being  impressed  with  a  desire 
to  tender  the  heads  of  families,  for  the  benefit  of  their  cliil- 
dren,  the  result  of  our  professional  experience  f6r  over  thirty 
years,  and  of  our  special  work  durhig  the  past  eleven  years,  in 
the  supervision  of  the  treatment  of  over  30,000  patients,  in  the 
*' Hospital  for  the  Belief  of  the  Ruptured  and  Crippled," 
where  children  from  the  age  of  four  to  that  of  fourteen, 
laboring  mainly  under  constitutional  chronic  disease,  are  re- 
ceived for  treatment.  Careful  obseiwation  of  their  history, 
and  that  of  their  families,  clearly  confirms  the  opinion,  that 
timely  care  under  judicious  home  influence  Vv^ould  have  greatly 
modified,  if  not  in  many  instances  prevented  or  arrested, 
the  progress  of  much  suffering  for  the  patients,  and  distress 
of  their  parents  and  friends.  This  book  is  intended  to  impart 
important  information  upon  this  subject. 


March,  1875. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

A  PREMISE  ON  MAN'S  HEALTH. 
CHAP.  PiiGJ? 

I.  -  -  Physical  Traitsting  conducive  to  Health   19 

The  condition  of  man's  health  viewed  comparatively — Improve 
ment  in  the  physical  condition  of  man's  offspring  an  obligatory 
duty — Sickness  the  great  suLduer  of  man — The  entailment  of  dis- 
ease upon  our  oflspring  a  sad  reflection— The  enforcement  of  laws 
and  dogmas  by  the  ancients  to  tlie  advantage  of  tlieir  children — 
The  beneficial  influence  of  muscular  exercise  common  to  both 
sexes — Encroachment  of  new  diseases — Mental  atta,inment  not  in- 
compatible with  means  for  physical  development— Chiklren  can 
only  be  improved  in  proportion  to  home  influences— The  organs 
of  the  system  that  suffer  most  from  mental  perturbation— Tho 
most  common  ailment,  Dyspepsia,  a  monster  malady  of  Protean 
form. 

II.  — Dangers  attending  undue  Mental  Excitement    30 

Influence  of  the  mind  upon  the  physical  organization  of  man — The 
dire  efl'ects  of  political  excitement ;  they  are  increased  by  alcohol- 
ic drinks — The  children  of  politicians  predisposed  to  scrofula- 
Torture  endured  by  scrofulous  children  from  adventurous  treat- 
ment—Scrofula curable  in  succeeding  generations — The  means  of 
alleviating  physical  sufl'ering — Deteriorating  influences  on  child- 
ren, and  most  serious  efl'ects  produced  thereby. 

III.— Importance  of  proper  Hygienic  Eegulations   36 

Means  of  obviating  unfavorable  influences— Careful  family  nurture 
can  diminish  the  virulence  of  scrofula — The  prosperous  laborer  is 
blessed  with  the  most  numerous  and  healthy  family  of  children — 
The  advance  of  knowledge,  when  properly  applied,  of  great 
advantage  to  the  laboring  classes— Unfavorable  circumstances  that 
continue  to  surround  the  indigent  laborer— How  to  remove  them. 


PART  II. 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

I.— Animal  Life— The  Nervous  System— Assimilation— Nervous 

Sensation  and  Exhaustion   4t 

How  animal  life  is  sustained — Organization  of  the  animal  system 
in  relation  to  the  vital  forces— Nerves,  their  distribution  and  va- 
rious functions— Assimilation  and  growth  dependent  upon  invol- 
untary motion — Nervous  sensation  as  manifested — Nervous  euer- 
gy,  how  exhausted,  and  the  means  of  accumulation. 


vi 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP. 


PAGE 
...51 


II.~The  Sensokium  Commune— Muscitlar  Motion. 


All  sensations  are  received  by  the  Sensorium  Commune^  and  result 
in  ideas — Impressions  made  upon  the  body  are  recognized  and 
termed  Consciousness — The  pleasurable  senses  of  sight  and  sound 
— Advantages  obtained  from  all  the  senses — Muscuhir  motion  and 
its  advantages— Motion  of  muscles  controlled  by  the  will,  termed 
Voluntary  Motion — Organs  of  sense  dependent  upon  muscular  mo- 
tion— IServes  of  voluntary  motion  distinct  from  nerves  of  sensa- 
tion, and  termed  Motor  Ner^^es. 

in. — Anatomy  of  the  Brain  and  Nerves  ........  5a 

The  brain  and  nerves  descrioed — Comparative  view  of  the  lower 
and  higher  order  of  animals— Description  of  the  spinal  cord,  and 
its  distribution  of  nerves — Intermingling  of  the  spinal  nerves 
with  the  sympathetic  nerve  and  its  ganglions — The  anatomy  of 
the  brain,  iilustrating  the  several  portions — The  wonderful  opera- 
tion of  the  nervous  system  beyond  our  comprehension. 

IV.  — ^Vitality,  or  the  Living  Principle — Temperaments  58 

Vitality,  or  the  living  principle,  incomprehensible— Whence  energy 
to  support  muscular  motion  is  obtained — Comparative  influence 
of  electricity  in  supplying  nervous  energy — Temperaments,  and 
their  influence  upon  individual  character— Circumstances  alone 
govern  the  temperaments  of  individuals  for  good  or  evil. 

V.  — Completeness  of  the  Human  Form — Organs  of  Nutrition  62 

Admirable  arrangement  of  the  human  form — The  importance  of  the 
hand  almost  equals  speech — The  various  organs  of  nutrition  and 
their  functions— The  living  animal  form  in  constant  motion,  thus 
expendmg  sustenance,  termed  Nutrifion — Animalized  material- - 
The  process  termed  Asi^bidlatiori  accomplished  through  the  organs 
of  Circulation  and  liespiration. 

VI.  — ^Muscular  Motion  and  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood   65 

'  Man's  inability  to  approach  in  completeness  nature's  works — Con- 
tractility constitutes  all  muscular  motion— The  heart  a  powerful 
muscular  motion,  sustaining  the  circulation  of  the  blood — The 
anatomy  of  the  heart  fully  described. 

VII.— Processes  of  Digestion  and  Nutrition   70 

Nutrition,  as  supplied  to  the  system  through  the  Lacteals^  termi- 
nates in  the  Thoracic  Duct — Chyle  the  product  of  digestion — 
Change  in  the  mass  of  food  eaten  first  takes  place  in  the  stomach 
— Gastric  fluid  reduces  all  natural  fluid  to  a  pulp,  which  is  acted 
upon  by  a  peculiar  motion  of  the  stomach — Chyme  is  formed  iu 
the  stomach,  and  Chyle  in  the  intestines. 

Vni.— The  Depuration  of  the  Blood  an]^  Evolution  of  Heat   74 


Blood  is  purified  in  the  skin  and  lungs,  and  heat  is  thereby  deve- 
loped—structure of  the  lungs  described — Their  functions. 


IX.— Anatomy  of  the  Vocal  Organs. 


78 


The  vocal  organs  described— The  Human  Voice  capable  of  every 
possible  sound — How  sound  is  produced. 


X  — Chemical  Changes  in  Respiration— Vital  Functions  — 

Chemical  changes  that  take  place  in  the  air  we  breathe — ^Vital 
force  an  independent  power  in  the  animal  system. 


80 


CONTENTS. 


vii 


PART  III. 

NUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 
CHAP.  PAaK 

L— The  Necessity  of  Nutrition — The  Influence  of  the  Atmo- 
sphere   85 

Nutrition  essential  to  the  sustenance  of  animal  life — Its  depend- 
ence on  chemical  changes — Different  conditions  of  tiie  atmosphere 
in  relation  to  the  requirements  of  the  animal  system — Animal 
temperature  and  its  maintenance  under  varied  circumstances. 

n. — Influence  of  Climate  on  the  Sick,  and  the  Benefits  de- 
rived FROM  Vegetable  Diet   89 

Climatic  influence  on  Invalids— Citizens  benefited  by  going  to  the 
country  in  the  warm  season,  and  by  strict  adherence  to  a  vegeta 
ble  diet — Pernicious  qualities  of  stale  fruit  and  vegetables. 

III.  — The  Formation  of  Living  Animal  Matter— The  Necessary 

Food  for  the  Young   92 

The  component  parts  of  blood  as  derived  from  food — Carnivorous 
and  graminivorous  animals  considered  in  relation  to  food— The 
young  obtain  from  milk  all  that  is  essential  to  growth  and  vigor. 

IV.  — The  General  Food  of  Man   97 

An  examination  of  the  general  food  of  man — Fibrin  and  Albumen 
are  products  taken  up  by  the  blood,  whether  from  vegetable  or 
animal  food — Mixed  food  most  suitable  for  man — Carbonaceous 
food  predisposes  to  fat  and  bile. 

V.  — The  various  Tissues  that  constitute  the  Human  Body — Vi- 

tal Force  or  Living  Power  102 

Bichat's  enumeration  of  the  various  tissues  that  constitute  the  en- 
tire form  of  man — Muscular  motion  dependent  upon  vital  force — 
Means  of  expending  vital  force,  and  assimilating  it. 

VI.  — Influences  of  Climate  and  Atmospheric  Electricity   103 

The  influence  of  climate  on  the  animal  system — Means  of  adapta- 
tion to  unfavorable  circumstances— The  electrical  condition  of  the 
atmosphere — A  sufficiency  of  electricity  an  excitant  to  man's  ener- 
gy, and  the  reverse  when  there  is  a  deficiency — The  influence  of  a 
deficiency  of  electricity  in  the  atmosphere. 

VII.  — Local  Influence  from  Heat  and  Moisture,  and  the  Influ- 

ence OF  Cold    109 

Heat  and  moisture — The  disturbing  influence  of  electricity  in  the 
atmosphere — Similarity  of  results  in  vital  force  in  the  resistance 
of  atmospheric  iniluence  and  in  the  accumulation  of  muscular 
power  for  labor — Means  of  sustaining  the  animal  system  under  the 
influence  of  cold — Variations  can  be  made  conducive  to  improve- 
ment in  health.. 

VIII.  — City  Life  predisposes  to  Scrofula  —  The  Injurious  Effects 

OF  Draughts  of  Air  113 

The  influence  of  city  life  in  inducing  a  scrofulous  diathesis — The 
various  unfavorable  and  unavoidable  difficulties  that  exist— The 
formation  of  tubercles  under  certain  circumstances — The  serious 
injury  sustained  by  the  human  system  from  concentrated  draughts 
of  air,  and  the  means  of  obviating  the  iniluence. 

IX.— Prospects  or  Eblief  to  Scrofulous  Children  Ill 

Relative  prospects  of  relieving  scrofulous  children — The  means  of 
curing  scrofula — It  can  be  eradicated. 

X.— Deieterious  Influences  and  Disinfectants  120 

Unfavorable  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  densely  populated 


•r 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 


HAP.  PAGB 

cities— Deleterious  influences  engendered  by  carelessness— Disin- 
fectants and  the  proper  methods  of  applying  them. 

XI,— Dangers  attending  Excessive  Eating— Warming  and  Venti- 
lating Apartments — Causes  of  Diphtheria  and  Consump- 
tion  12£ 

People  under  favorable  conditions  become  large  eaters — Children 
require  more  food  than  adults— The  importance  of  selecting  suita- 
ble locations  for  country  resort — The  proper  method  of  heating 
dwelling-houses,  and  the  means  of  ventilating  them— How  diph- 
theria and  consumption  are  engendered. 


PART  IV. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 

I.— Nutriment  Classified  133 

The  food  of  man  divided  into  two  classes — Nitrogcnized  sub- 
stances, or  the  articles  that  form  blood — Non-nitrogenized  sub- 
stances, or  the  elements  of  respiration. 

11. — The  Actual  Nutriment  obtained  from  Food  135 

Chemistry  in  relation  to  man's  normal  condition  of  health— Organ- 
ized elemental  substances  the  result  of  vegetable  life — Analysis 
of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  used  as  food — Food  designa- 
ted for  the  seasons. 

III.  — Injurious  Effects  of  Unripe  Fruits  140 

How  unripe  fruits  afi'ect  the  system — They  are  most  injurious  to 
young  children — Means  of  relief  when  injury  has  been  sustained. 

IV.  — Pernicious  Effects  of  Stale  Meat  and  Vegetables— Nutri- 

ment obtained  from  Fish  and  Flesii-meat  140 

Stale  meat  and  vegetables  very  detrimental  to  the  human  system 
— Analysis  of  meat— Nutritious  qualities  of  fish  investigated  and 
determined  by  comparative  density. 

V. — The  most  Nutritious  Food  of  Man,  and  the  best  ways  of 

Preparing  it  149 

The  several  modes  of  cooking  meat — Its  nutritious  qualities,  and 
the  methods  by  which  it  is  rendered  most  digestible— How  to  pre- 
l^are  meats  for  invalids — Milk  and  Eggs:  their  nutritious  qualities 
— The  composition  of  milk. 

VI.— Milk  and  Butter:  their  Properties  and  Preservation  152 

The  properties  of  milk  under  various  circumstances— Milk  well 
adapted  to  nourish  the  young,  but  not  sufficient  food  for  adults — 
Human  milk  compared  with  that  of  various  animals — Cream  as  a 
diet — Butter  and  its  component  parts — Cheese  only  lit  food  for 
hearty  laborers — Means  of  preserving  milk,  and  the  several 
methods  of  doing  so— Various  modes  of  preserving  butter. 

Vn. — Nutritive  Qualities  of  Eggs  15S 

The  peculiarities  and  properties  of  eggs  and  their  nutritious  quali- 
ties— Deleterious  eflect  produced  by  eating  stale  eggs. 

VIII.— The  Natural  Food  for  Infants,  and  its  Substitute  IGQ 

The  primary  growth  and  development  of  the  babe,  and  its  proper 
nourishment — x'Vdvice  to  mothers  who  are  unable  to  suckle  their 
oflspring — The  milk  that  sliould  be  selected — Regulations  to  be 
observed  in  nursing — Influences  that  tend  to  vitiate  human  milk 


CONTENTS. 


ix 


— Afflictions  caused  thereby,  and  tlieir  proper  treatment— Means 
to  be  adopted  for  the  sustenance  of  infants  whose  mothers  arc 
unable  to  suckle  them. 

1X.~The  Production  of  Fat  :  its  Causes  and  Consequences  170 

The  nature  and  tendency  of  vegetable  food— The  production  of 
fat  is  the  result  of  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  in  the  system— Diabetes 
and  its  treatment- -Its  injurious  eflects. 

X.— Starch  and  Sugar  as  Articles  of  Diet  173 

Starch  is  a  most  abundant  product  of  the  vegetable  kingdom — The 
various  plants  from  which  starch  is  manufactured— Change  of 
starch  into  sugar — Plants  from  which  sugar  is  obtained — Amount 
annually  produced— Constiiuents  of  various  kinds  of  sugar — Pro- 
cess of  malting— Pure  sugar  not  a  nutritious  diet. 

XI.— The  History  and  Manufacture  of  Sugar  181 

Sugar  was  known  from  the  earliest  ages — ^The  Venetians  brought 
it  into  Europe — Its  introduction  into  America — The  latest  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  sugar— Its  antiseptic  proper- 
ties— The  preparation  of  fruit  jellies. 

XII. — The  Four  Varieties  of  Fermentation         .   185 

The  processes  of  fermentation  and  their  results — Changes  in  the 
germination  of  seeds  and  the  ripening  of  fruit— The  fermentation 
of  grape  sugar  and  the  change  of  sugar  into  alcohol — Yeast  essen- 
tial to  form  vinous  fermentation— Formation  o9  acetic  acid,  or 
vinegar — Putrefactive  fermentation — Heat  and  cold  arrest  fermen- 
tation—How to  preserve  meat  and  vegetables. 


PART  V. 


CEKEALS  AND  LEGUMES. 

I.— The  Nutritious  Elements  of  Vegetable  Food   191 

Vegetables  that  contain  the  greatest  amount  of  nutrition — The 
cerealia  stand  at  the  head — From  them  are  obtained  gluten,  fibrin, 
albumen,  and  casein,  and  all  the  mineral  substances  essential  to 
the  formation  of  the  animal  bo:!}^ — A  greater  digestive  effort  re- 
quired to  obtain  sustenance  from  vegetables  than  from  meat — 
Albumen  soluble  in  water — Fibrin  found  in  the  juices  and  seeds 
of  plants — It  is  not  soluble  in  water — Is  convertible  into  albumen 
— Albumen  in  the  .egg  is  changed  into  hbrin — Leguminosae  pro- 
duce the  greatest  aniount  of  casein — Casein  abounds  in  the  milk 
of  the  mammalia — Oils  from  vegetables  consist  of  two  kinds, 
volatile  and  fixed — Why  animal  oil  is  more  inflammable  than 
starch  or  sagar— C'il  is  a  suitable  diet  in  extreme  cold— Volatile 
oils  produce  the  various  fragrant  scents— Fixed  oils  make  a  per- 
manent stain — Oils  rapidly  absorb  oxygen. 

IT.— The  Relative  Nutriment  in  Seeds  eaten  by  Man— Introduc- 
tion OF  Grain  Plants   195 

Relative  nutritious  qualities  of  seeds — Grain  plants  are  all  annual 
— Their  stems  contain  silex  (flint)— They  came  from  the  East — 
Coflee,  tea,  and  cotton  traced  from  the  East  toward  the  V/est — 
Traditions  in  regard  to  the  early  cultivation  of  grain— An  Ameri- 
can Indian  tradition  relative  to  the  origin  of  maize,  etc. — Wheat 
a  proof  of  the  civilization  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — It  is  disco- 
vered in  their  sepulchres— Cerealia  grown  before  the  time  of 
Noah's  flood — Bread  made  by  Abraham's  wife — Joseph's  dream 


X 


CONTENTS. 


of  the  sneaves— Pharaoh's  dream  of  seven  ears  on  one  stalk— 
Humboldt  on  the  migration  of  plants— Man  has  selected  for  his 
food  about  twenty  of  the  most  abundant  seed-bearing  grasses- 
Bread  grasses  not  originally  found  in  Mexico— Wheat  mtroduced 
into  that  country  by  a  slave— By  whom  it  was  carried  into  Peru—  ■ 
—The  first  wheat  that  reached  Q.uito— The  Spaniards  introduced 
wheat  into  America— Spring  wheat  less  hardy  than  winter  wheat 
— Advantages  to  be  derived  from  growing  spring  wheat. 

III.  — Wheat  and  the  Manufacture  of  Buead   302 

Analysis  of  the  nutritive  qualities  of  wheat— Winter  wheat  more 
nutritious  than  summer— Ditierence  in  wheat  grown  in  warm  and 
cold  regions — One  of  the  most  desirable  varieties — The  structure 
of  a  grain  of  wheat  and  its  nutritive  parts  described — Properties 
of  cerealin — It  is  essential  to  promote  digestion— The  weight  of 
wheat  and  average  yield  of  flour— Pernicious  eilccts  of  fats  in 
flour— They  are  increased  by  baking — When  bread  is  most  solu- 
ble—Ordinary  mode  of  making  bread— Inj  urious  effects  that  may 
arise— When  properly  fermented  sugar  is  formed— Skill  required 
to  make  good  bread — How  to  obtain  a  proper  fermentation— How 
to  make  yeast. 

IV.  — Rye:  Its  Qualities  and  Uses   200 

Rye,  as  a  nutrient,  stands  next  to  wheat— It  was  not  known  in 
ancient  India  and  Egypt— Pliny  mentions  its  cultivation— Its  use 
south  of  the  Baltic  Sea— In  Sweden  it  is  made  into  cakes — How 
it  is  grown  in  Lapland — Fungous  growth  on  rye — Its  poisonous 
qualities— Favorable  condition  for  its  growth— Its  eftects  in  bread 
— Serious  consequences  resulting  from  it  in  various  countries- 
Animals  and  insects  poisoned  by  it— Good  qualities  of  rye— Im- 
portance of  the  rye  crop— A  good  fertilizer— Rye  not  so  readily 
digested  as  wheat— Owing  to  its  saccharine  qualities,  it  is  most 
readily  malted — Is  made  into  ardent  spirits,  and  is  much  used  as 
a  substitute  for  coflee. 

v.— Barley,  Malting,  and  Brewing   214 

The  countries  in  which  barley  has  been  discovered— The  several 
■  varieties— Cultivated  by  the  Jews  in  the  earliest  ages— Grains  Ox 
it  found  in  the  Egyptian  catacombs — Egyptian  traditions  respect- 
ing it— Barley  is  best  suited  to  a  northern  climate— It  is  not  so 
nutritious  as  wheat— A  grain  the  measure  of  one  third  of  an  inch 
Barley  extensively  cultivated  for  brewing  into  malt  liquors — Fer- 
mented liquors  made  from  barley  at  a  veiy  early  date — They  are 
still  made  in  Egypt  and  Nubia — The  Anglo-Saxons  drank  ale  and 
mead — The  old  ale  knights  of  England — Attachment  of  the  Eng- 
lish to  ale — The  introduction  of  hops  into  ale  forbidden  by  Henry 
VIII.— Large  consumption  of  malt  and  hops  in  Great  Britain — 
Mode  of  manufacturing  malt — Process  of  making  malt  liquors — 
Good  qualities  of  pure  fermented  liquors — German  lager-beer 
aflbrds  no  nutriment,  and  is  very  intoxicating — The  lager-beer  of 
the  United  States  is  diflcrent — Amount  of  beer  manufactured  in 
the  United  States. 

VI.— Oats,  the  Original  Bread-Grain   222 

Oats  cultivated  two  thousand  years  ago  by  the  Celts  and  Germans 
— Known  to  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans — Used 
for  bread  before  the  more  nutritious  grains  were  introduced — Yet 
prized  in  some  peculiar  forms  of  cooking — Compared  with  other 
grains— Incidents  connected  with  the  use  of  cereals  in  England  in 
former  days — Grain  was  ground  in  a  hand-mill,  called  a  quern — 
The  bread  formerly  eaten  by  the  French  peasantry — Wheaten- 
bread  a  great  luxury  i)^  England  in  the  last  century— Fatality  of 
the  plague  increased  by  the  want  of  nutritious  food — The  "  Black 
Death''— Oats  the  most  readiiy  grown  of  the  cereals. 


CONTENTS. 


xi 


\] I. —Rice:  its  Uses  and  Cultivation 


PAGE 

..  238 


Rice  a  marsh  plant— Known  3000  years  before  the  Christian  e-ra — 
Contains  the  lease  nutriment  of  all  the  cereaiia — Is  much  culti- 
vated in  all  warm  climates — Was  known  to  Strabo,  and  grown  in 
Babylon  and  Syria— Its  great  value  in  North-America— When  in- 
troduced, and  by  whom — The  rice  grown  in  Carolina  and  Georgia 
is  the  finest  in  the  world — Rice  is  made  into  various  dishes  of 
cookery — Is  boiled  and  eaten  vv^ith  milk  or  molasses — An  excel- 
lent diet  for  children — Prevents  thirst  when  eaten  after  salt  meats 
—The  effects  of  fluids  in  regard  to  digestion— How  to  remove  the 
ailments  caused  by  over-indulgence  in  rich  food — The  cultivation 
of  rice  in  Georgia  and  South-Carolina — The  bobolink,  or  rice- 
bird— Its  destructive  habits  in  the  rice-field — The  Chinese  make  a 
kind  of  wine  out  of  rice,  and  the  people  of  the  East  distill  from 
it  ardent  spirits. 

VIIL— Indian  Corn  and  its  Preparations  233 

Indian  corn  indigenous  to  America— Cultivated  by  the  Indians, 
but  not  mentioned  by  the  first  voyagers  to  Virginia— Hospitality 
of  the  natives — During  Grandville's  second  visit,  Lane  learned  to 
smoke  tobacco,  and  afterward  introduced  it  into  England — Cap- 
tain Smith  obtained  maize  from  the  natives— First  slaves  intro- 
duced into  Virginia— Maize  now  cultivated  in  Egypt,  India,  China, 
Greece,  and  Italy — The  Mexican  Indians  prepared  sugar  from 
maize,  also  spirituous  liquors  and  common  drinks— Large  quanti- 
ties disiilled  lu  the  Southern  and  Western  States-^rUsed  for  fat- 
tening cattle— Its  fattening  and  muscle-making  properties  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  plants— Agricultural  products  of  the 
United  States— Unripe  corn  considered  a  delicacy — Preparations 
from  corn — Corn- bread  only  suitable  food  for  healthy  persons — 
Mucli  eaten  in  the  Southern  States— Why  it  is  not  injurious — 
Cooling  eflect  of  perspiration — Carbo.naceous  food  generates  fat, 
bile,  or  sugaf— Starch  conduces  to,  diabetes — Proper  food  for  a 
warm  climate,  and  for  children  confined  to  tke  house. 

IX. — Buckwheat  AND  its  Varieties   -.   243 

Buckwheat,  called  in  Germany  heecli-wTieat^  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope in  the  sixteenth  century— Has  no  affinity  with  the  cereaiia — 
Is  used  very  extensively  as  a  bread  grain — When  green,  is  excel- 
lent fodder  for  milch  cows— The  grain  is  good  for  domestic  ani- 
mals— Affords  more  muscle  than  corn — Is  hard  to  digest — In 
Dantzic  it  is  largely  distilled  into  spirits — The  several  varieties 
of  buckwheat  and  analogous  grains. 

X.— Millet,  Sorghum,  and  Imphee   246 

Millet  commonly  grown  in  the  East-Indies — Was  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans — The  several  varieties — The  Borgkum  mc- 
charahini  a  native  of  India — Its  introduction  as  a  sugar-produc- 
ing plant  into  tlie  United  States— 7/y^^;Aee,  or  African  sorghum— 
The  sorgho  flourishes  in  the  various  climates  of  the  Union— Its 
numerous  merits — Its  manufactnre  into  sugar— Its  general  use — 
The  stalks  form  nutritious  fodder  for  cattle — Yield  of  sugar  and 
molasses  per  acre— Various  methods  adopted  to  obtain  the  same 
— Alcoholic  drinks  manufactured  from  the  sap — Uses  to  which 
the  sced-^,  husks,  etc.,  can  be  applied — Mode  of  cultivating  sor- 
ghum—Expenses attendant  upon  cultivation  and  manufacture, 
and  tlie  profit  per  acre— Means  of  testing  the  presence  of  acid  in 
molasses— How  meat  is  preserved  with  molasses— Importance  of 
the  sorghum  plant— Invaluable  uses  of  molasses. 

XL— Peas,  Beans,  AND  Lentils     258 

Peas  amd  beans  most  nutritious,  but  difficult  to  digest— For  horses 
and  oxen  they  txceed  all  other  food  in  nutriment; — The  garden 
pea  cultivated  at  a  very  remote  period— Several  varieties  of  peas 


xii 


CONTENTS. 


— The  chick-pea  an  object  of  devotion— Where  it  is  cultivated — 
Much  used  by  the  Spaniards — Was  the  parched  pulse  of  the  He- 
brews— Eastern  trade  in  parched  peas— Garden  and  field  peas— 
The  bean  known  at  an  earlier  period  than  the  pea— Kyanetes, 
the  god  of  beans,  honored  by  the  Athenians— The  bean  considered 
an  impure  fi'uit  by  the  Egyptians — Was  in  ancient  times  the 
symbol  of  death — Cultivated  in  China  2822  years  before  tlie  Cliris- 
tian  era— Is  made  into  flour  and  bread  by  the  Abyssinians— Is 
largely  cultivated  in  Barbary — Varieties  of  beans— The  kidney- 
bean — The  lentil  grown  in  France  and  Italy — Msa^e  into  soup  in 
Catholic  countries  as  a  limited  diet  for  fast-days— Is  the  most 
nutritious  of  the  leguminous  seeds — Eaten  by  the  Hindoos  when 
engaged  in  laborious  work. 


PART  VI. 

ESCULENTS  AND  FHUITS. 

1.— The  Potato   205 

Properties  of  esculent  vegetables— The  potato  most  nutritious 
and  of  the  utmost  value  to  man— Can  not  be  superseded— Found 
growing  wild  in  Chili — Indigenous  to  America,  and  thence  trans- 
ported to  England  in  1583 — Arrives  at  its  greatest  perfection  in 
the  temperate  zones— Quality  improved  by  culture— Peculiar  efiect 
of  cultivation  upon  esculents  and  fruits — The  potato  improved  by 
change  of  locality — As  a  diet,  exempts  from  disease — When  eaten 
with  rich  food,  improves  the  digestive  functions— Its  use  would 
avert  excessive  mortality — Too  much  fluid  creates  a  craving  for 
large  quantities  of  food — Value  of  esculents— Comparative  amount 
of  nutriment  in  common  articles  of  diet. 

II.— Plants  of  which  we  Eat  the  Leaves,  etc   2T5 

Value  of  esculents  as  food — Have  been  used  for  diet  in  all  ages — 
Asparagus  cultivated  to  perfection  by  the  Romans — Cabbage  most 
digestible  in  a  raw  state — Kohlsalat  and  sauerkraut — The  lettuce 
much  prized  by  the  Persians — It  is  a  wholesome  dixit  when  eaten 
with  dressing — Vinegar  is  a  promoter  of  digestion— Oil  arrests 
fermentation  in  the  digestive  organs — By  whom  sugar  should  not 
be  used  in  dressing — Remarks  apply  equally  to  the  dressing  of  all 
salads— Celery  a  most  valuable  salad-plant — In  its  wild  state  is 
rank  and  unpalatable,  but  when  cultivated  is  sweet  and  agreeable 
— Is  a  great  promoter  of  digestion — Parsley  of  the  same  family  as 
celery.  ^. 

III.  — Fruits:  theie  Properties  and  Qualities   279 

Fruit  desirable  as  an  adjuvant  in  diet — Promotes  digestion,  and 
lessens  the  demand  for  hearty  food— All  fruits  are  not  deficient  in 
nutrunent — Their  medicinal  properties — They  contain  organic 
acids — Table  of  gases  found  in  these  acids — They  are  appropri- 
ated to  the  uses  of  the  body — The  fruits  in  which  specific  acids 
are  found. 

IV.  — The  Apple  and  the  Pear   283 

The  apple  the  most  Vciluable  fruit— The  prophet  Joel  refers  to  it 
— It  is  also  mentioned  by  Shakespeare — Manufacture  of  cider 
favored  by  Charles  I. — The  consequences  of  partaking  of  impure 
wines — Wild  apples  and  pears,  where  found — The  pear  has  a 
much  wider  range  than  the  apple— The  cultivation  of  apples  and 
pears  moet  improved  by  the  Romans — The  varieties  mentioned 


CONTENTS. 


xiii 


by  ancient  writers— Their  number  at  the  present  day— A  know- 
ledge of  good  fruit  not  encouraged  in  tlie  United  States — Unripe 
fruit  pernicious  even  when  cooked. 

y.— Stone-Feuits,  the  Grape,  etc   286 

Stone-fruits  are  divided  into  two  families— Tlie  seed,  bark,  and 
leaves  contain  hydrocyanic  acid— The  peach  a  wholesome  fruit— 
The  cherry  and  the  plum  not  so  wholesome— Want  of  disposition 
in  many  to  cultivate  fruit-trees — The  noble-hearted  traveler  Bur- 
chell — The  misfortunes  of  Sickler,  the  German  horticulturist — 
The  peach  cultivated  in  the  earliest  ages — It  is  mentioned  in  the 
books  of  Confucius— The  original  home  of  the  cherry— The 
grape  one  of  the  first  fruits  cultivated  by  man— Is  indigenous  to 
several  countries — Varieties  produced  by  crossing — American 
grapes— The  properties  of  the  smaller  fruits  identical  with  those 
described. 


PART  YII. 

BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

I.  — Water  and  Stimulant  Drinks     293 

Fluids  essential  to  life — They  are  injurious  when  not  dissipated 
from  the  body,  and  when  taken  to  excess — Mucli  evaporation  dis- 
sipates animal  heat,  which  is  essential  to  health — The  digestive 
functions  impaired  by  fluids — Water  the  most  salutary  drink — 
It  prolongs  life  when  nutriment  can  not  be  obtained — Instance  of 
a  man  who  lived  fifty-three  days  on  water  alone — Water  very  bene- 
ficial to  robust  persons — Pernicious  eff"ects  of  alcoholic  drinks — ■ 
Constant  excitement  exhausts  the  system — The  propriety  of  giv- 
ing stimulants  to  aged  and  infirm  persons  doubtful — Alcoholic 
drink  as  a  medicine  serves  an  invaluable  purpose. 

II.  — Excess  of  Fluids  Injurious  to  Children   299 

Children's  health  impaired  by  partaking  largely  of  fluids— Their 
digestive  powers  are  thereby  enfeebled— A  cause  of  cliolera  in- 
fantum—Proper  food  for  the  young— How  to  keep  milk  for  inlants 
— Regulations  to  be  observed  in  feeding  them. 

III.  — Prepared  Drinks— Iced  Water— Acidulated  Drinks — Nu- 

tritious Fluids   301 

Prepared  drinks  taken  for  gratification — Their  eff'ect  on  different- 
ly constituted  persons — Iced  water  as  a  drink— It  is  sedative  and 
reduces  sensibility — Relieves  drunkenness — Is  hurtful  to  the 
mouth,  throat,  and  stomach— Its  sedative  effects  are  injurious — 
Acidulated  drinks  only  salutary  to  some  persons — Nutritious 
fluids — Soups  only  suitable  for  persons  of  energetic  digestive 
povfers— Concentrated  juices  of  meat  beneficial. 

,  IV  —Tea  and  the  Tea-Plant   SOQ 

Tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  chocolate  fornt  nutritious  drinks — They 
contain  a  peculiar  strengthening  power— Dilution  impairs  their 
virtue,  and  is  injurious  to  persons  of  weak  digestive  powers — 
—Cream  adds  to  their  nutritious  qualities— Tea  first  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Dutch — Immense  amount  now  im])orted  into 
Europe  and  America— The  mode  of  preparing  tea  for  the  market 
—The  diflerent  varieties— How  to  preserve  its  good  qualities— 
For  what  it  is  efficacious — It  is  an  antidote  for  poison. 


xiv 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  TAGB 

v.— CorrEE  AND  ITS  Pkeparation   313 

The  flowers  of  the  cofi'ee-tree  exceedingly  fragrant— The  fruit 
and  seed — Cofiee  sold  at  Constantinople  in  1554— Was  supposed 
to  be  intoxicating  and  its  use  forbidden— It  was  afterward  per- 
mitted and  taxed— Great  consumption  of  colfee  by  the  Turks -It 
was  carried  westward  by  the  Venetians  The  colfee-plant  first 
introduced  into  Europe  in  1714 — Was  conveyed  to  the  West-Indies 
— Coffee  indigenous  in  Arabia — Mode  of  planting  and  of  gather- 
ing the  berries— How  coffee  should  be  roasted  — The  proper  way 
to  prepare  the  beverage— When  sugar  and  milk  should  be  added 
— The  beneticial  eilects  of  coffee  in  peculiar  cases — Persons  to 
whom  it  is  injurious— Consumption  of  coffee  in  the  United  States. 

VI.  — Cocoa  and  Chocolate   318 

Chocolate  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  Theobroma— The  Theobro- 
VKt  cacao  cultivate<«l  in  Mexico  in  the  time  of  the  Aztecs— Uses 
and  properties  of  its  seeds— The  cacao-tree,  its  foliage,  /lowers, 
and  fruit — The  modes  of  manufacturing  chocolate— Cocoa  and 
broma— The  use  of  chocolate  in  various  countries. 

VII.  — Condiments  and  theib  Qualities   321 

Condiments  not  only  render  food  palatable,  but  are  promoters  of 
digestion— The  more  acrid  varieties  pernicious — The  condiments 
most  conducive  to  health — Salt  and  vinegar — Sugar,  cream,  but- 
ter, and  oil  render  rich  food  obnoxious,  but  are  advantageous 
when  taken  with  plain  food — Aromatic  spices  must  be  taken  with 
caution — On'ons  and  garlic  have  a  sedative  effect— When  sugar 
disagrees  with  dyspeptics— Salt  essential  to  sustain  health — Its 
absence  engenders  worms  in  the  stomach — Salt  provisions  pro- 
duce scurvy — Vinegar  in  moderation  conducive  to  health — It  ren- 
ders fatty  substances  more  digestible— When  taken  in  excess,  it  is 
injurious. 


PART  VlII. 


INCENTIVES   TO   HEALTH  AND   MEANS   OF   RELIEF   IN   CASES  OP 
ACCIDENT. 

I.— Bathing  and  the  Functions  op  the  Skin   32T 

The  external  application  of  fluids  most  grateful  to  man  when 
fatigued— Bathing  employed  as  a  curative  means —Was  a  religious 
observance  among  the  ancients— Scriptural  history  of  bathing— 
The  Greeks  indebted  to  the  Egyptians  for  its  knowledge — Cruel 
practice  of  the  Spartans— Excessive  cold  water  injurious—Judg- 
ment required  in  bathing— Sedative  ett'ects  of  cold  water  danger- 
ous to  some  constitutions — Structure  and  organization  of  the  skin 
—How  it  is  acted  upon  by  cold  water— Relief  afforded  by  the  cold 
bath  in  cases  of  fever  and  inflammation — When  the  application 
of  iced  wate-r  is  beneficial— The  warm  bath  and  its  remedial 
qualities— The  hot  bath  and  its  stimulating  ettects— Is  dangerous 
to  persons  of  full  habit— Precautionary  measures— How  to  pre- 
pare a  vapor-bath— Application  of  the  fumes  of  alcohol  or  the 
spirit  vapor-bath — The  foot-bath  and  local  applications. 

n.— Clothing  and  the  Efej^cts  of  Cold   Wi 

Clothing  contributes  to  health— The  evils  attendant  on  being  in- 
sufficiently clad— Neatness  in  dress  commands  respect— Children 
sacrificed  by  fashionable  clotliing— Drafts  in  street  cars  a  prolific 
cause  of  death— Concentrated  drafts  of  air  decidedly  injurious— 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


UAP,  PA.GB 

Efiects  of  cold  on  the  young  and  the  aged— Cold  air  acts  upon  the 
system  like  cold  water— A  torpid  skin  the  result  of  sedentary  ha- 
bits—Exercise, not  clothing,  the  proper  remedy— Clothing  should 
be  worn  in  accordance  with  surrounding  circumstances — The  skin 
best  protected  by  flannel— How  children  should  be  dressed  by  day 
and  night— Flannel  retains  heat,  but  linen  absorbs  it— Cold  feet 
must  not  be  permitted— How  they  can  be  prevented— Sacrifice  of 
women  and  children  by  wearing  thin  shoes  and  stockings— Expo- 
sure of  the  limbs  of  children  tends  to  paralysis— Treatment  of 
-  paralyzed  parts— Waistbands  and  high-laced  boots  injurious  to 
children — The  necessity  for  frequently  changing  underclothing — 
Persons  who  should  be  carefully  guarded  against  cold. 

III.— Physical  Exercise   355 

Exercise  a  manifestation  of  life— It  is  essential  to  its  well-being 
—The  first  exercises  of  the  infant — Discipline  necessary  in  the 
exercise  of  children — Objections  to  the  cradle— Riding  more  bene  - 
ficial to  children  than  being  carried— Causes  which  lead  to  children 
becoming  tender — How  it  is  that  poor  children  endure  great  ex- 
posure— Their  habits  of  life — The  practical  lessons  we  obtain 
from  them— Modification  in  treatment  necessary  for  delicate  child- 
ren-Vital force  exhaustive— It  is  increased  by  gradual  demand 
—Muscular  activity  maintained  by  nutriment — The  benefits  which 
accrue  from  active  exercises— The  injurious  efiects  of  fatigue — 
When  2^cc^sive  exercises  are  advantageous — Pleasure  should  be 
associated  with  exercise— When  exercise  is  most  salutary— Spe- 
cial exercises  for  the  restoration  of  lost  powers — Excessive  exer- 
cise should  be  avoided— Treatment  in  cases  of  deformity— Club- 
feet and  their  cure— General  deductions. 

rV.— Mental  and  Physical  Exercise   371 

Mental  and  physical  powers  must  be  exercised  equally  to  insure 
longevity — The  eft'ect  of  such  combined  exercise  on  difi^erent 
classes— Suggestions  for  the  social  improvement  of  laboring  men 
— The  greatest  amount  of  work  is  not  achieved  when  the  entire 
time  is  devoted  to  labor  or  study — Gloomy  forebodings  prejudi- 
cial to  health — Tke  efiects  of  constant  excitement— Traveling  the 
best  exercise — The  beneficial  influences  of  a  sojourn  in  the  coun- 
try— When  mountain  air  should  be  avoided — The  influence  travel- 
ing exerts  upon  the  mind  and  body — How  travelers  should  be 
clothed— 111  health  the  result  of  moral  causes — Disorganization 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  and  its  treatment — The  eflfects 
caused  by  exposure  to  rapidly  moving  air — Persons  should  be 
careful  in  giving  advice  to  valetudinarians. 

v.— Means  op  Relief  in  Cases  of  Accident   383 

Importance  of  timely  aid  when  an  accident  occurs— Wounds  and 
their  treatment — Suspended  animation  from  drowning — Sufi'oca- 
tion  from  foul  air — Sufibcation  from  common  burning  gas — Gene- 
ral rules  to  be  observed  in  cases  of  sufi'ocation— Sufl'ocation  by 
choking— Suspended  animation  from  cold— Extensive  burns  or 
scalds— Syncope,  or  fainting— Poisoning. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  BRAIN,   5G 

THE  HEART  AND  BLOOD-VESSELS,   68 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS,   78 

ELECTRICAL  MACHINE  AND  USEFUL  APPARATUS,  ...  144 

SECTION  OF  A  GRAIN  OF  WHEAT,  MAGNIFIED,  ....  204 

VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  SKIN,  MAGNIFIED,     ...  333 


PART  I. 

p.    j-'REMISE      ON      yVlAN'S  |^EALTH. 


CHAPTEE  I. 


PHYSICAL  TRAmilSra  CONDUCIVE  TO  HEALTH. 

The  Condition  of  Man's  Health  viewed  comparatively — Improve- 
ment in  tli^  physical  condition  of  man's  offsprino^  an  obligatory 
duty — Sickness  the  great  subduer  of  man — The  entailment  of  dis- 
ease wpon  our  offspring  a  sad  reflection — The  enforcement  of  laws 
and  dogmas  by  the  ancients  to  the  advantage  of  tjieir  children — ■ 
The  beneficial  influence  of  muscular  exercise  common  to  both  sexes 
— Encroachment  of  new  diseases — Mental  attainment  not  incom- 
patible with  means  for  physical  development — Children  can  only 
be  improved  in  proportion  to  home  influences — The  organs  of 
the  system  that  suffer  most  from  mental  perturbation — The 
most  common  ailment,  Dyspepsia,  a  monster  malady  of  Protean 
form 

IN  order  to  ascertain  what  is  most  conducive  to  the 
improvement  of  man's  health,  it  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary that  we  should  investigate  his  normal  condition, 
and  discover  the  agencies  that  are  most  instrumental 
in  impairing  it.  The  full  development  of  the  organi- 
zation, the  complete  performance  of  all  the  organic 
fanctions,  and  the  enjoyment  of  an  agreeable  condi- 
tion, may  be  considered  as  approximating  to  that 
desirable  state  of  existence — perfect  health.  Dr. 
SouTHWooD  Smith,  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Health," 
defines  the  same  "  as  the  natural  and  easy  exercise  of 


20 


A  PKEMISE  ON  MAn's  HEALTH. 


all  tlie  functions — constituting  a  state  of  actual  pleas- 
ure;" in  wliicli  case,  lie  adds,  "  the  usual,  the  perma- 
nent, and  natural  condition  of  each  organ,  and  of  the 
entire  system,  is  pleasurable."  Dr.  James  Johnson 
states  that  this  might  be  true  if  we  were  in  a  state 
of  nature ;  but,  'in  our  present  condition,  there  is 
scarcely  such  a  thing  as  perfect  health."  Unfortu- 
nately, however,  perfect  health  is  often  a  negative 
rather  than  a  positive  quality — an  immunity  from 
suffering  rather  than  the  "  pleasurable"  condition 
described  by  Dr.  Smith.  All  experienced  medical 
writers  incline  to  this  conclusion  with  regard  to  the 
health  of  man  in  his  present  situation.  Hence,  his 
offspring  must  be  considered  as.  in  a  comparative 
state  of  health,  for  "  the  sins  of  the  father  are  visited 
upoji  the  children."  The  infant  brings  w^ith  it  predis- 
positions to  disease  peculiar  to  the  parents,  which  are 
developed  in  its  progress  through  life,  modified  or 
aggravated,  as  circumstances  may  determine.  Great 
improvement,  however,  in  the  health  of  tlie  offspring, 
may  be  obtained  by  careful  training,  which  is  an  obli- 
gatory duty  enjoined  upon  parents;  for  they  have 
assumed  a  responsibility  not  to  be  avoided  under  any 
pretence,  other  than  that  of  physical  or  mental  inabil- 
ity. It  is  a  responsibility  due,  not  only  to  the  child, 
but  to  that  Creator  who  has  blessed  them  with  a  like- 
ness of  themselves,  in  a  living  being,  and  implanted 
in  their  hearts  that  dee^^  love  which  is  only  fully  real- 
ized when  the  child  is  afflicted  with  pain,  and  the 
hand  of  death  is  upon  it. 

We  are  all  aware  that  wealth  can  not  procure  health 
and  ease,  much  less  happiness  or  life.    It  would  be 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  PKOMOTES  HEALTH.  21 

considered  an  nnjiist  dispensation  of  Providence  to 
have  permitted  the  purchase  of  that  which  is  the  poor 
man's  joy — good  health — the  want  of  which  reduces 
the  affluent  to  worse  than  indigence.  The  bed  of 
sickness  and  suffering  is  the  greatest  subduer  upon  this 
side  of  the  grave.  If  properly  considered,  it  aff*ords 
us  consolation  to  know  that  the  affliction  is  for  our 
good,  although  it  may  have  resulted  from  our  own  in- 
discretion ;  but  it  can  not  be  made  a  consolation  to  the 
parent  who  has  entailed  suffering  upon  his  offspring, 
either  by  neglect  or  ignorance  of  what  is  most  condu- 
cive to  their  welfare. 

It  is  universally  admitted  that  there  is  a  degeneracy 
of  physical  power  in  our  race  at  the  present  day,  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  ancients,  which  should  invite 
our  attention  to  the  means  successfully  adopted  by  the 
latter  to  develop  energy  and  strength.  Their  method 
of  enforcing  hygienic  training  would  most  certainly 
not  be  applicable  in  this  enlightened  age,  but  it  serves 
to  awaken  the  inventive  genius  of  our  advanced  intel- 
lect. The  religious  ceremonies  of  the  ancients  had  a 
most  potent  influence  in  the  preservation  of  health. 
In  the  observance  thereof  they  w^ere  very  strict,  and 
it  was  a  part  of  their  belief  that  their  sanitary  code 
was  the  mandate  of  Heaven.  Hence,  Brahma  had  no 
difficulty  in  introducing  the  vegetarian  doctrine.  He 
prohibited  the  use  of  animal  food,  and  was  most  rigid- 
ly obeyed  by  all  his  adherents,  much  to  their  advan- 
tage in  health,  as  they  lived  in  a  very  hot  climate. 
It  was  the  same  with  the  Hebrews,  who  were  forbid- 
den to  eat  pork,  an  observance  to  which  they  strictly 
adhered,  believing  it  to  be  a  divine  command.  The 


22  A  PEEmsE  ON  man's  health. 

abstinence  tlierefrom  was  of  mucli  benefit  to  tliem,  be- 
cause, in  the  eastern  country  which  they  inhabited, 
the  swine  were  afflicted  with  the  leprosy,  a  supposed 
contagious  disease  of  most  loathsome  character,  that 
could  be  communicated  to  man.  Lycurgus,  too,  made 
a  law  for  the  guidance  of  the  Greeks,  in  which  it  was 
decreed  tliat  all  children  born  with  deformity  or  de- 
fect should  be  destroyed.  Its  object  was  to  preserve 
and  improve  the  form  and  physical  capacity  of  the 
Spartan  children,  so  that  he  could  rely  upon  them, 
when  they  reached  man's  estate,  as  protectors  of  his 
government.  And  that  their  well-formed  muscles 
might  be  invigorated  and  attain  extraordinary 
strength,  he  introduced  pliysical  training  as  essen- 
tial to  both  sexes,  and  thus  produced  a  stalwart 
race.  No  attempt  at  educating  the  mental  f^xculties, 
or  restraining  the  exuberant  spirits  of  these  Spartan 
children,  was  allowed  before  the  expiration  of  the 
first  seven  years;  consequently,  the  full  energies  of 
the  system  were  expended  in  the  development  of  the 
physical  frame.  When  seven  years  old,  both  mental 
and  physical  training  were  enforced  by  the  laws  of 
the  country.  Under  these  laws  the  children  were 
subjected  to  a  regular  course  of  discipline  in  public, 
and  in  common  were  exposed  to  atmospheric  changes 
of  every  kind,  and  were  compelled  to  undergo  severe 
exercises  in  the  gymnasium,  the  practice  of  which  in- 
creased with  their  age.  At  the  same  time,  their  diet 
was  very  simple,  and  but  little  varied. 

This  rigid  system  of  training  both  the  sexes  before 
marriage  must  have  produced  that  great  similarity 
of  constitution,  as  well  as  that  vigor  of  health,  which 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  PROMOTES  HEALTH. 


23 


is  at  the  present  time  exhibited  in  our  rural  dis- 
tricts, where  women  work  in  tlie  field  with  men.  In 
some  German  settlements,  the  female  is  quite  equal 
in  muscular  force  to  the  male,  possessing  sufficient 
strength  to  shoulder  three  busliels  of  wheat,  (sixty 
pounds  to  the  bushel,)  and  to  throw  tlie  load  upon  a 
horse,  preparatory  to  taking  it  to  the  mill  to  be  ground 
into  flour.  How  many  men  are  there  in  our  large 
cities  who  could  accomplish  this  feat  ?  Not  one  out 
of  ten.  Such  strength  may  not  be  required  for  the 
ordinary  pursuits  of  life,  yet  it  is  of  great  value  to  the 
possessor,  as  it  is  a  protection  against  the  vicissitudes 
of  our  climate.  It  also  tends  to  mitigate  maternal  suf- 
fering, as  is  evinced  in  the  districts  alluded^o,  where 
women  engaged  in  rural  pursuits  are  not,  in  many  in- 
stances, confined  to  their  beds  more  than  twelve 
hours.  Tliese  well-known  facts  ought  to  be  sufficient 
to  induce  us  to  make  at  least  an  eflfort  to  improve  our 
physical  constitution. 

We  thus  find  tliat  the  ancients  enforced  sanitary 
measures  both  by  religious  dogmas  and  by  legislative 
enactments,  and  thereby  produced  nations  of  the  most 
healthy  and  hardy  races  of  men  that  ever  lived.  A 
knowledge  of  this  truth  shows  our  deficiency  in  pub- 
lic sanitary  measures  for  the  protection  of  the  health 
and  the  lives  of  our  people,  who  suflfer  from  increasing 
deterioration  of  their  physical  powers,  and  from  the 
encroachment  of  new  diseases,  which  are  frequently 
pronounced  by  practitioners  in  medicine  to  be  of  an 
extraordinary  type,  and  entitled  to  new  names.  Our 
condition  is,  consequently,  truly  alarming,  and  the 
attention  of  the  people  should  be  invited  to  the  sub- 


24 


A  PRElNnSE  ON  MAn's  HEALTH. 


ject,  so  tliat  it  may  be  corrected  by  a  united  effort, 
which  can  only  be  made  when  the  public  are  fully 
aware  of  their  situation.  Religions  dogmas,  it  is 
true,  would  not  be  tolerated  at  the  present  time  ;  nei- 
ther would  legislative  encroachment  upon  the  prerog- 
atives of  the  heads  of  families  be  submitted  to.  The 
consideration  of  this  all-important  topic  must,  there- 
fore, be  left  with  the  enlightened  and  educated  classes, 
whose  example  would  surely  be  followed.  If  they,  for 
instance,  prevented  their  children,  during  the  first 
seven  years*  of  life,  being  confined  for  unreasonable 
hours  in  school,  limited  them  to  a  simple  and  nutri- 
tious diet,  caused  them  to  take  daily  exercise  in  the 
open  air,  enforced  little  or  no  restraint  other  than 
moral  instruction,  and  clothed  them  in  a  dress  that 
would  permit  freedom  of  muscular  motion,  their  wise 
example  would,  in  a  reasonable  time,  become  popular 
and  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  health  and  pleasure 
of  the  young,  who  are  ever  ready  to  test  their  agility 
and  muscular  energy  with  their  companions.  Trials 
of  activity  and  strength  were  the  delight  of  the  Spar- 
tan youth ;  and  athletic  sports  still  form  part  of  the 
inherent  disposition  of  the  young,  and  are  to  them 
pleasurable  pursuits  which  invigorate  both  the  mental 
and  physical  powers.  Such  exercises,  however,  to 
have  a  beneficial  efi^ect,  must  be  carefully  regulated 
by  stated  periods  of  rest,  determined  by  powers 
of  endurance  and  predisposition  to  constitutional 
weakness  ;  and,  by  good  management,  such  predispo- 
sition may  be  much  improved,  and  attain  power  to 
resist  the  influence  of  ordinary  surrounding  circum- 
Btances  prejudicial  to  health.    It  must  be  borne  in 


PHYSICAL  TKAINING  PROMOTES  HEALTH. 


25 


mind  that  the  Spartan  children  were  kept  on  plain 
nourishing  food,  and  were  not  submitted  to  any  re- 
straint for  the  first  seven  years ;  and  that  after  that 
age  a  gradual  training,  regulated  by  legislative  enact- 
ments as  to  the  exercises,  which  were  uniform  and 
severe,  tended  to  develop  muscular  power  without 
injury  from  its  severity.  These  children  had  no  con- 
stitutional derangement  nor  hereditary  weakness  ;  for 
their  parents,  having  experienced  a  similar  course 
of  treatment  in  their  youth,  were  vigorous  and 
healthy,  and  transmitted  their  hardy  organic  ten- 
dencies to  their  olFspring. 

Though  the  Spartan  children  were  mainly  trained 
for  the  development  of  muscular  power,  .mental  edu- 
cation is  not  incompatible  with  such  exercises,  if  not 
too  excessive.  But,  in  viewing  the  advantages  to  be 
obtained  from  physical  training,  properly  balanced  by 
moral  and  mental  culture,  we  perceive  many  seem- 
ingly almost  insurmountable  difficulties  that  super- 
vene, discouraging  alike  to  teachers  of  schools  and  to 
those  who  have  the  responsibility  of  taking  charge  of 
our  children.  After  laboring  most  assiduously,  yet 
unsuccessfully,  for  the  improvement  of  youth,  they 
are  unable  to  account  for  their  want  of  success,  the 
reason  for  which  is  attributable  to  their  being  unac- 
quainted with  the  former  habits  of  the  children,  a 
knowledge  whereof  would  throw  much  light  upon  the 
subject.  The  irregularities  or  intemperance  of  parents, 
in  regard  to  the  ordinary  government  of  many  fami- 
lies in  fashionable  life,  is  very  apparently  manifested 
in  their  children  by  an  obtuseness  of  nervous  sensibil- 
ity, which  nervous  condition  is  caused  by  excessive 


26 


A  PREMISE  ON  man's  HEALTH. 


indulgence  in  extraordinary  excitements.  Sucli  child- 
ren can  only  be  improved  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  home  influences  brought  to  bear  upon  them,  unless 
tliey  are  placed  under  the  exclusive  charge  of  judi- 
cious teachers.  The  only  means  of  accomplishing 
this  result  is  in  early  life,  by  a  systematic  and  vigor- 
ously enforced  course,  which,  if  adopted,  will  improve 
their  mental  and  physical  powers,  and  often  rescue 
them  from  latent  morbid  tendencies. 

It  is  to  a  knowdedge  and  just  appreciation  of  these 
•facts  that  we  are  most  desirous  of  drawing  attention, 
in  the  hope  that  they  will  induce  parents  who  subject 
themselves  to  pernicious  influences  to  have,  at  least, 
regard  for  their  children,  and  thus  save  them  from 
the  inevitable  result  of  such  conduct — ill  health.  The 
relation  between  the  mental  and  physical  forces  of  the 
system  is  so  close  that  excesses  in  the  latter  seriously 
impair  the  former,  and  excesses  in  the  former  still 
more  seriously  impair  the  latter.  For  instance,  too 
much  mental  exertion  at  any  period  of  life  is  inimical 
to  health.  Those  engaged  in  scientific,  mechanical, 
mercantile,  political,  or  other  pursuits  requiring  great 
mental  exercise,  naturally  experience  physical  disabil- 
ity. But  the  depressing  passions  consequent  upon 
failure,  an  exalted  condition  of  the  mind  c];eated  by 
great  excitement,  and  a  morbid  tendency  to  excitabil- 
ity, which  may  be  prompted  by  a  desire  to  imitate 
others  wdio  indulge  in  constant  excitement,  are  most 
injurious  of  all.  These  present  examples  of  intem- 
perance of  the  most  insidious  character,  which  niJ-Uii- 
fests  itself  in  encroachments  upon  the  necessities  re- 
quisite to  the  maintenance  of  good  health, — in  the 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  PKOMOTES  HEALTH, 


27 


rejection  of  food  of  a  proper  kind  at  stated  times, 
and  in  the  loss  of  sleep  at  the  proper  pei-iod  for  rest, 
or  in  taking  too  nmch  sleep  at  irregular  hours.  And 
it  is  these  encroachments,  added  to  excessive  nervous 
excitement,  that  is  deteriorating  the  constitution  of 
man,  and  is  giving  us,  at  the  present  day,  a  weak, 
degenerate  race.  An  occasional  freak  of  over-indul- 
gence produces  no  permanent  injury,  and  may  even 
be  repeated  at  long  intervals  with  seeming  impunity  ; 
but  we  may  rest  assured  that  a  continuance  of  such 
action  will  always  affect  the  person  so  indulging  in 
proportion  to  the  stamina  he  possesses.  Hence,  we 
find  some  people  persisting  in  these  habits  with  appar- 
ent impunity,  whilst  others  suffer  sevei^ely  for  their 
temerity. 

We  probably  more  directly  observe  the  influence 
of  the  mind  upon  the  body,  when  it  is  caused  by  un- 
avoidable and  unfavorable  circumstances,  than  when 
it  is  occasioned  by  indulgence  in  what  is  most  exu- 
berant to  our  tastes,  such  as  in  ambitious  designs,  in 
hilarity,  or  in  gazing  upon  scenes  that  are  astonishing 
and  exalting  to  the  imagination.  Here  is  an  illustra- 
tion. A  man  receives  astounding  intelligence  of  some 
most  distressing  character.  His  mind,  his  brain,  his 
whole  nervous  system  are  agitated  and  disturbed ;  his 
appetite  fails,  or,  if  he  partakes  of  food,  it  is  not  prop- 
erly digested;  fever  supervenes,  and  his  whole  frame 
indicates  a  depressing  influence.  It  is  remarked,  from 
an  actual  change  in  his  features,  that  he  appears  older 
than  he  really  is.  In  a  word,  the  organs  not  imme- 
diately under  the  control  of  the  will,  or  not  directly 
connected  with  the  intellectual  portion  of  the  body, 


28 


A  PREMISE  ON  MAn's  HEALTH. 


— tlie  organs  of  digestion,  circnlation,  nutrition,  and 
secretion, — are  all  disturbed,  and  their  functions  dis- 
ordered. 

The  mental  effects  upon  the  corporeal  system 
are  those  which  naturally  attract  most  attention. 
Yery  few,  comparatively  speaking,  are  exempt  from 
trouble.  From  the  laborer,  who  is  most  probably  the 
least  afflicted,  to  the  millionaire,  all  have  their  griev- 
ances. There  is,  consequently,  to  be  found  in  every 
rank  of  society  a  depression  of  the  nervons  system, 
which  tends  to  produce  debility,  and  to  induce  a 
gradual  failure  of  the  physical  organization  to  per- 
form its  wonted  functions.  This  depression  is  fol- 
lowed by  various  types  of  disease,  which  can  only 
be  palliated  for  a  time  by  the  skill  of  a  physician, 
whilst  the  evil  is  continued.  The  most  common 
ailment  is  dtjspepsia^  a  disorder  of  not  very  distant 
origin,  which  Dr.  Johnson  calls  a  "monster  malady 
of  Protean  form."  No  mention  is  made  of  dyspepsia 
in  ancient  records,  nor  was  it  even  known  in  the 
middle  ages.  It  is,  doubtless,  the  oftspring  of  civil- 
ization and  refinement,  of  sedentary  habits  and  intel- 
lectual culture,  of  physical  deterioration  and  mental 
perturbation — a  Proteus  which  assumes  the  form  and 
usurps  the  attributes  of  almost  every  malady,  mental 
and  corporeal,  that  has  scourged  the  human  race  since 
the  creation  of  the  world.  The  physician,  pressed  for 
an  explanation  of  this  malady,  quiets  his  patient  by 
saying  that  it  is  a  nervous  derangement,  or  the  result 
of  a  diseased  liver,  stomach,  spleen,  brain,  or  spine. 
But  he  must  not  call  it  hypochondriasis  or  hysteria, 
for  by  so  doing  he  would  give  oflense,  and  probably 


PJIYSICAL  TRAINING  PROMOTES  HEALTH. 


29 


be  discharged  from  further  attendance.  Dr.  Johnson 
states  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  the  clue  to  the 
diversity  of  opinion  which  exists  with  regard  to  dys- 
pepsia. This  Patho- Protean  affliction  is  not,  per- 
Iiaps,  in  strict  language,  an  entity,  a  single  disease 
sent  down  from  heaven  or  springing  from  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  but  rather  a  morbid  constitution  or  dis- 
position, produced  by  the  various  moral  and  phj^sical 
causes  we  have  alluded  to,  and  moulding  numerous 
other  maladies  into  its  own  semblance.  Although 
the  multitudinous  causes  of  this  evil  must  operate 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  yet  there  are  two  principal 
channels  through  which  it  flows  upon  man  much 
more  frequently  than  through  others — namely,  the 
brain  and  tlie  stomach,  but  chiefly  the  former.  The 
moral  impression  on  the  brain  and  nerves  is  infinitely 
more  injurious  than  the  physical  effect  of  food  and 
drink  upon  the  stomach,  however  improper  such  ali- 
ment might  be.  The  multifarious  relations  of  man 
with  tlie  world  around  him,  in  the  present  era  of 
social  life,  are  such  as  must  inevitably  keep  up  a  con- 
stant source  of  perturbation,  if  not  irritation.  This 
trouble  of  mind  is  not  solely,  or  even  principally,  ex- 
pended on  the  brain  and  nerves,  but  upon  the  organs 
of  the  body  most  intimately  associated  with  the  brain, 
— upon  the  digestive  organs,  including  the  stomach, 
the  liver,  and  the  bowels. 


CHAPTER  II. 


DANGERS  ATTENDING  UNDUE  MENTAL  EXCITEMENT. 

Influence  of  the  mind  upon  tlie  physical  organization  of  man — Tb  9 
dire  eflPects  of  political  excitement ;  they  are  increased  by  alco- 
holic drinks — The  children  of  politicians  predisposed  to  scrofula 
— Torture  endured  by  scrofulous  children  from  adventurous 
treatment — Scrofula  curable  in  succeeding  generations — The 
means  of  alleviating  x)hysical  suffering — Deteriorating  influ- 
ences on  children,  and  most  serious  effects  produced  thereby. 

THE  play  of  the  mind  upon  the  physical  organi- 
zation of  man,  of  which  we  spoke  in  the  previ- 
ous chapter,  has  received  special  attention  from  some 
of  our  most  erudite  medical  waiters,  especially  from 
Dr.  Johnson.  We  have  no  desire  to  frighten  our  po- 
litical aspirants,  but  we  can  not  refrain  from  quoting 
from  that  acknowledged  eminent  authority  what  he 
has  stated  as  a  part  of  his  experience. 

He  writes  :  "  During  the  French  Revolution  whole 
classes  of  diseases  were  produced,  and  especially  that 
of  the  heart.  These  are  now  rapidly  multiplying 
from  the  excitement  of  politics.  Excitement  is  a 
w^ord  not  sufficiently  expressive.  The  hatred  which 
exists  now  between  people  of  different  politics  is 
such,  that  health  is  incompatible  with  its  continuance. 
One  half  of  the  present  violent  politicians  w^ill  as- 


EVIL  EFFECTS  OF  UNDUE  MENTAL  EXCITEMENT.  31 


suredly  die  of  disease  of  the  heart,  or  of  some  great 
internal  organ.  Scarcely  a  day  —  even  an  hour  — 
passes  withont  my  seeing  exemplifications  of  this 
principle.  If  the  votaries  of  political  ambition  could 
see  with  me  a  few  of  the  efiects  of  that  ambition — or, 
even  of  that  perturbation  of  mind  attendant  on  po- 
litical struggles — they  would  fly  in  dismay  from  the 
baleful  contest." 

This  portrays  a  great  similarity  to  what  is  con- 
stantly being  enacted  in  our  political  contests  — 
hatred,  envy,  and  turbulent  manifestations,  not  un- 
frequently  terminating  in  the  loss  of  life.  These  con- 
tests are  sustained  by  whole  classes  of  political  oppo- 
nents for  years  ;  but,  near  the  close  of  ^ach  election, 
the  most  violent  perturbations  of  mind,  incited  by 
alcoholic  drinks,  are  experienced,  and  the  physical 
powers  suffer  from  an  actual  neglect  to  take  food.  If 
what  has  been  stated  by  one  of  the  most  talented  and 
experienced  practitioners  in  the  science  of  medicine 
that  England  ever  produced  be  true,  the  prospects 
are  by  no  means  encouraging  as  to  the  certainty  of 
life  among  our  political  aspirants,  or  as  to  the  robust 
health  of  their  offspring.  In  such  children  the  scro- 
fulous diathesis  w^ill  most  undoubtedly  prevail  in  all 
its  protean  form  of  ailments.  These  ailments  are  not 
only  more  insidious  and  quite  as  numerous  as  those 
produced  in  adults  by  dyspepsia,  but  they  exhibit  a 
more  decided  character  to  the  experienced  practi- 
tioner. They  are:  Inflammation  of  the  eyelids  and 
nostrils  ;  eruptions  of  the  skin,  varying  from  rough- 
ness to  that  of  decided  pustules  ;  secreting  incrusta- 
tions ;  engorgement  of  the  glands,  frequently  suppu- 


32 


A  PREMISE  ON  MAN's  HEALTH. 


rating  and  discharging  from  the  internal  ear  and 
imder  the  jaws,  known  as  Kincfs  Evil  /  engorgement 
of  the  glands  of  the  bowels,  producing  an  enlarge- 
ment and  hardness  of  the  abdomen,  which  tends  to  a 
constant  looseness  of  the  bowels  ;  emaciated  limbs  ; 
humpback  ;  white  swelling ;  and  tubercular  consump- 
tion. 

Many  children,  having  a  decided  scrofulous  ten- 
dency, are  largely  developed  and  exceedingly  rotund 
in  form.  These,  from  unfavorable  influences,  are 
eventually  affected  with  some  of  the  above  ailments, 
and  thus  show  their  defective  organization.  Such  child- 
ren are  usually  late  in  teething,  and  are  subject  to  en- 
largement of  the  joints,  to  bow^  legs,  and  to  irregular 
development  of  the  chest  and  head.  If  they  enjoy 
fair  digestive  powders,  and  are  not  placed  under  the 
old  starving  course  of  treatment,  many  of  them  will 
maintain  sufficient  vital  force  to  withstand  an  in- 
credible amount  of  torture,  such  as  they  would  suffer 
from  extending  by  mechanical  force  their  contract- 
ed muscles  morbidly  affected  by  local  irritation,  from 
violent  movement  periodically  applied  to  enfeebled 
limbs,  from  sudden  crushing  of  distorted  joints,  and 
from  tearing  of  the  ligamentous  attachments,  and 
attempting  to  keep  a  limb  in  position  where  there  is 
no  sustaining  socket  to  retain  it,  the  result  of  which 
is  extensive  abscesses.  In  such  cases  the  patient  may 
escape,  and  live  for  several  years. 

Here  we  have  an  important  matter  for  consider- 
ation, namely,  that  a  patient  is  able  to  endure  what 
would  be  considered  sufficient  cause  to  impair  the 
health  of  a  hale  person.     It  is  reasonable  to  supj)ose 


EVIL  EFFECTS  OF  UNDUE  MENTAL  EXCITEMENT.  33 


that,  by  careful  hygienic  treatment,  many  of  these 
ailments  would  be  modified,  and  this  horrible  sutFer- 
ing  from  adventurous  treatment  thereby  avoided.  For, 
if  the  patients  have  sufficient  stamina  to  withstand  such 
an  exhausting  ordeal,  is  it  not  a  probable  inference 
that  they  might  be  restored  to  a  standard  of  health 
that  would  throw  otf  much  of  the  scrofulous  taint, 
which  is  nothing  more  than  an  enfeebled  condition 
of  certain  organs  tliat  fail  to  fully  perform  their 
wonted  functions  ?  Their  offspring  would  not  then 
be  subjected  to  this  supposed  hereditary  malady,  and 
consequently  would  not  be  exposed  to  treatment  like 
that  which  we  have  described. 

Scrofula  is  curable  in  succeeding  generations.  It 
is  readily  induced  in  one  generation,  by  depressing 
influences  upon  the  human  system,  and  from  various 
causes  which  it  requires  the  utmost  care  to  avoid. 
And  this  avoidance  can  only  be  accomplished  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  human  economy  in  its  physical,  in- 
tellectual, and  moral  relations.  It  must  be  admitted, 
in  this  enlightened  age,  that  the  study  of  man  is  most 
important.  To  acquire  a  knowledge  of  our  own 
nature,  and  of  the  circumstances  which  surround  us, 
is  not  only  interesting,  but  the  possession*  of  such  in- 
formation enables  iis  to  escape  much  unnecessary  suf- 
fering. The  subject  m.ust  be  considered  not  in  one 
particular  alone,  but  in  all ;  the  intellect,  the  body, 
the  feelings,  and  the  affections — all  must  be  studied 
and  appreciated,  severally  and  collectively.  Many 
of  the  o;rievous  ills  which  mark  our  course  tlirouc^h 
life  must  be  ascribed  to  defective  education,  to  de- 
teriorating circumstances,  and  to  want  of  determina- 


34 


A  PEEMISE  ON  MAN's  HEALTH. 


tion  on  the  part  of  parents  to  maintain  a  restrictive 
government  over  tliemselves  and  their  children.  The 
greatest  barriers  to  the  improvement  of  the  human 
race  are  selfishness,  jarring  interests,  and  conflicting 
opinions,  together  Avith  too  low  an  estimate  of  the 
dignity  of  Imman  nature. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  lover  of  his  fellow-man  to 
strive  to  ameliorate  pain.  The  starting-point  toward  " 
the  alleviation  of  physical  suffering  is  a  close  study 
of  the  laws  which  govern  our  organization;  for,  if 
these  laws  are  violated,  we  can  not  hope  for  a  continu- 
ance of  good  health.  Many  of  the  ailments  to  which 
we  are  subject  in  childhood  may  be  mitigated,  even 
where  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  the  development  of 
the  disease.  Hence,  it  should  be  understood  that  we 
have  power,  at  least,  by  hygienic  treatment,  to  control 
many  maladies  of  ordinary  occurrence ;  and  this  should 
be  forcibly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  parents,  so 
that  by  their  own  efforts  they  may  mitigate  a  vast 
amount  of  suffering  to  which  their  children  are  predis- 
posed. 

The  tender  and  sensitiA^e  nerves  of  the  young  can 
not  be  exposed  to  extraordinary  excitement  without 
sustaining  iwjury  from  over  tension.  Their  sensibility 
for  acquiring  the  more  sedate  essentials  to  intellectual 
improvement  thereby  becomes  impaired,  and  an  un- 
favorable  impression  is  imparted  to  the  physical  organ- 
ization ;  whilst  an  inability  to  resist  unfavorable  in- 
fluences, antagonistic  to  their  vital  energies,  is  also 
produced,  which  influences,  under  unimpaired  consti- 
tutions, are  overcome  as  they  advance  in  age.  But 
this  good  result  can  only  ])C  obtained  by  individuals 


EVIL  EFFECTS  OF  UNDUE  MENTAL  EXCITEMENT.  35 


who  have  been  placed  under  proper  regime  in  early 
life,  and  are  exempt  from  hereditary  infirmities.  To 
accomplish  it,  careful  training  in  mental  and  physical 
exercises — rather  restricting  the  mental  so  that  the 
physical  may  be  more  fully  developed — is  necessarj^, 
especially  during  the  first  seven  years  of  childhood. 
Much  care  should  also  be  taken  to  guard  against 
sudden  changes  of  the  weather,  and  against  wearing 
too  heavy  clothing  at  one  time,  and  an  insufhciency 
of  apparel  at  another.  Great  precaution,  too,  is  re- 
quired to  preserve  children  of  this  tender  age  from 
witnessing  exciting  scenes,  such  as  those  which  create 
an  apprehension  of  danger  or  lead  to  great  exaltation 
of  the  mind,  and  which  are  ofttimes  enacted  at  places 
of  public  amusement  in  our  large  cities  ;  even  music 
in  excess,  as,  for  example,  extraordinary  performances 
thereof,  is  injurious.  These  influences  are  hurtful  in 
degree  even  to  mature  growth  and  development ;  for 
inadvertance  of  the  nature  alluded  to  has  entailed 
timidity  upon  individuals  through  life,  and  has  caused 
the  grossest  superstitions  to  be  entertained  even  against 
the  person's  own  reasoning.  The  recital  of  frightfully 
portrayed  scenes  is  also  equally  pernicious  to  youth. 
It  is  well  known  that  sudden  fear  produces  upon  the 
human  system  the  most  painful  sensations  of  all  the 
depressing  influences  that  affect  the  mind,  and  some- 
times causes  instant  death;  whilst  timidity,  in  its 
continued  or  chronic  form,  gradually  impairs  the 
physical  powers,  and  dwarfs  the  development  of  intel- 
lect and  energy,  if  not  also  of  stature. 


CHAPTER  III. 


IMPORTANCE  (3F  PROPER  HYGIENIC  RECJTTLATIONS. 

M^ans  of  obviating  unfavorable  influences—  Careful  family  nurture 
can  diminisli  tlie  virulence  of  scrofula — The  prosperous  laborer 
is  blessed  with  the  most  numerous  and  healthy  family  of  children 
— The  advance  of  knowledge,  when  properly  applied,  of  great 
advantage  to  the  laboring  classes — Unfavorable  circumstances 
that  continue  to  surround  the  indigent  laborer — How  to  remove 
them. 

IN  order  to  obviate  the  influences  of  hereditary 
physical  infirmities,  careful  hygienic  training 
must  be  commenced  at  birth.  AVhen  both  parents 
are  unhealthy,  the  offspring  can  not  be  sonnd.  The 
union  of  many  unfavorable  circumstances  tends  to 
tliat  result.  Careful  culture  will  do  much  to  modify, 
as  irregularity  will  assuredly  aggravate,  the  conse- 
quences of  a  faulty  organization.  Thus  it  is  that 
many  enjoy  tolerable  health,  in  whom  latent  disease 
awaits  only  a  suitable  excitant ;  but  this  latent  disease 
may  never  be  developed,  from  the  disposition  being 
BO  modified  by  prudent  nurture  when  young,  that  it  is 
not  easily  excited  into  activity  in  after  life.  On  the 
other  hand,  children  of  the  most  healthy  parents  be- 
come delicate  in  consequence  of  unfavorable  circum- 


VALUE  OF  HYGIENIC  TRAINING. 


37 


stances — from  improper  regulations  with  regard  to  air, 
exercise,  food,  and  clothing,  and  from  depressing  moral 
influences.  Children,  like  plants,  require  the  light  and 
heat  of  the  sun,  otherwise  they  languish  and  deteri- 
orate. Their  digestive  powers  are  weakened  by  an 
insufficiency  of  nutritious  food,  and  by  fluids  contain- 
ing little  or  no  nourishment.  Foul  air  retained  in 
rooms  from  necessity,  or  from  an  apprehension  of 
catching  cold  by  the  admission  of  fresh  air,  also  tends 
to  impair  the  digestive  organs.  Tlue  same  result 
likewise  ensues  from  the  want  of  exercise,  caused  by 
children  being  prohibited  from  participating  in  sup- 
posed rude  or  boisterous  enjoyments,  which  are  essen- 
tial to  the  development  of  the  body,  though,  perhaps, 
they  are  not  in  strict  accordance  with  the  rules  of  what 
is  considered  good  deportment. 

The  effect  of  this  mistaken  care  is  a  weakened  or- 
ganization, which,  if  not  apparently  developed  in  the 
person  submitted  to  over-watchfulness,  will  exhibit  it- 
self in  his  or  her  progeny.  Scrofula,  rickets,  mesen- 
teric and  pulmonary  consumption,  caries  of  the  spine 
or  humpback,  hip  disease,  white  swelling,  and  glandu- 
lar enlargement,  terminating  in  extensive  abscesses,  as 
w^e  have  already  stated,  are  the  attendants  which  await 
such  a  feeble  ^and  disordered  constitution.  It  is  thus 
that  imagined  hereditary  diseases  are  induced.  If  it 
w^ere  otherwise,  it  would  be  natural  to  conclude  that 
they  originated  w^ith  the  first  parents  of  mankind^ 
which  is  certainly  not  the  case.  They  are,  on  the 
contrary,  the  fruits  of  our  own  imprudence.  The  hab- 
its of  parents  and  the  manner  in  which  they  train 
their  children,  can  produce  or  avert  these  evils,  as  wel] 


38 


A  PKEMISE  ON  MAN's  HEALTH. 


as  increase  or  diminish  their  virulence.  It  does  not  fol- 
low that  because  one  or  both  parents  may  be  the  off- 
spring of  a  scrofulous  person  or  persons,  the  children, 
if  properly  nm'tured,  will  suffer  from  a  strumous  pre- 
disposition. We  have  abundant  proof  of  this  fact. 
Persons  enjoying  the  most  robust  health,  and  not  pre- 
senting a  scrofulous  feature,  are  the  grand-children  of 
those  who  have  been  afflicted  with  hip-disease,  caries 
of  tlie  spine,  (humpback,)  etc.  Again,  we  have  others 
suffering  most  severely  from  those  diseases,  and  yet 
the  origin  of  the  disorders  can  not  be  traced  back  even 
to  the  third  or  fourth  generation  ;  but,  on  careful  ex- 
amination, it  will  be  discovered  that  some  deteriorat- 
ing influence  in  the  parents,  or  some  circumstances 
pertaining  to  nurture,  have  be^n  at  fault.  Parents  of 
well-developed  physical  proportions  often  impair  their 
physical  organization  by  excessive  mental  exertion 
and  anxiety,  or  exhaust  their  powers  by  extraordinary 
efforts  made  in  the  fascinating  and  successful  pursuit 
of  ambitious  desigiis,  either  of  which  will  entail  an 
enfeebled  progeny.  Like  consequences  also  result 
from  irregular  habits  of  living,  such  as  gratifying  pur- 
suits during  the  night,  interference  with  seasonable 
rest,  the  disposition  to  indulge  in  long  repose  in  the 
morning,  and  eating  to  excess  and  at  irregular  pe- 
riods. These  indulgences  are  unfavorable  to  the  vital 
forces,  wdiicli  are  essential  to  the  production  of  a  vig- 
orous and  healthy  progeny  ;  and  their  ill  effects  are 
quite  apparent  in  many  opulent  families  of  our  large 
cities,  the  number  of  whose  children  who  arrive  at  the 
age  of  manhood,  or  are  even  born,  being  very  limited 
wlien  compared  with  those  of  mechanics  or  laborers 


VALUE  OF  HYGIENIC  TRAINING. 


39 


\vhose  physical  powers  are  increased  in  proportion  to 
the  force  required  at  their  work.  Employment  in 
tlie  open  air  increases  both  the  muscular  vigor  and 
the  demand  for  sustenance,  which  sustenance  is  reh 
ished  by  the  out  door  operative  with  a  zest  unknown 
to  the  epicure,  whose  palate  requires  to  be  pampered 
with  food  of  an  artificial  nature ;  while  the  former  en- 
joys his  simple  fare  with  a  relish  which  the  art  of 
cookery  can  not  produce  for  the  latter.  The  plain 
diet  of  the  working  man  serves  to  raise  a  numerous 
and  healthy  family  of  children,  all  other  matters  be- 
ing equal,  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  liberal  men- 
tal training  which  is  furnished  them  by  our  most  in- 
valuable public  schools.  Where  the  social  amenities 
of  life,  with  a  full  knowledge  and  appreciation  of 
the  true  source  from  whence  those  blessings  come, 
are  inculcated  to  this  ^class  of  persons,  their  condition 
is  most  delightful  and  desirable,  for  they  enjoy  an 
almost  unsullied  happiness ;  their  cares  and  responsi- 
bilities arevery  limited,  and  their  prospects  promising. 
Energetic  on  account  of  their  vigorous  health,  their 
children  are  prompted  to  elevate  their  position  in  life, 
and  even  aspire  to,  and  actually  fill  the  most  honora- 
ble stations  in  the  gift  of  our  free  country. 

It  is  of  great  interest  to  us  all  that  we  should  fully 
understand  the  means  whereby  the  health  of  mankind 
can  be  improved.  When  we  scrutinize  the  health  of 
those  within  our  cognizance,  it  is  painfully  apparent 
that  their  organization  is  almost  always  defective-. 
Some  constitutions  yield  to  circumstance  >  which  oc- 
casion no  change  in  others.  Many  persons  pass 
through  life  in  the  enjoyment  of  tolerably  good  health 


40 


A  PREMISE  ON  MAN'S  HEALTH. 


and  strength,  but  who,  nevertheless,  as  we  have  re- 
marked, transmit  to  then*  offspring  a  constitution  tliat 
yields  to  morbid  influences.  The  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion has  led  to  the  production  of  a  better  supply  of 
the  necessaries  of  life,  has  tended  to  lessen  the  sever- 
ities of  labor,  has  clothed  us  with  comfortable  gar- 
ments, and  given  us  a  sufiiciency  of  food  and  fuel,  and, 
furthermore,  has  bestowed  upon  us  medical  attend- 
ance by  skillful  practitioners.  These  are  all  inestimable 
blessings  which  ouglit  materially  to  better  the  condi- 
tion of  man.  Every  thing,  as  we  liave  fully  demon- 
strated, that  diminishes  the  tendency  to  disease,  alike 
promotes  temperance,  cleanliness,  and  industry,  and 
perfects  the  organization  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  a  person  is  exposed  to  cold  or  to  damp  air,  or  if  his 
labor  is  excessive  and  protracted  beyond  physical  en- 
durance, and  his  food  is  scanty  in  supply  and  bad  in 
quality,  grief,  wretchedness,  and  disease  are  the  inevi- 
table consequences.  And  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  it  is  in  childhood,  especially,  that  injurious  moral 
and  physical  agents  operate  with  the  greatest  force ; 
for  it  is  before  the  joints  are  knit  and  the  constitution 
is  fully  formed,  that  the  causes  heretofore  stated  pro- 
du-ce  their  most  dire  effects. 

Judging  from  what  is  daily  presented  to  our  obser- 
vation, we  feel  assured  that  it  would  contribute  much 
to  the  improvement  of  our  health,  and  that  it  would 
also  redress  many  of  the  ills  of  life,  if  it  were  made  a 
part  of  our  general  education  to  convey  a  knowledge 
of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  human  body,  and 
of  the  various  agents,  both  beneficial  and  otlierwise,by 
which  we  are  surrounded  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave. 


VALUE  OF  HYGIENIC  TRAINING.  41 

Siicli  a  course  would  enable  many  to  make  a  better 
provision  for  their  wants,  both  immediate  and  prospec- 
tive, as  well  as  open  out  a  multitude  of  resources 
which  are  now  overlooked ;  while  the  continued  oper- 
ation of  superior  agencies  would  effect  the  most  salu- 
tary changes  in  the  condition  of  our  race.  The  state 
of  the  very  indigent  is  less  encouraging,  for  they  must 
submit  to  unfavorable  circumstances.  The  remuner- 
ation afforded  them  for  their  services  is  very  limited. 
The  amount  earned  daily  by  the  poor  laborer  is  not 
more  than  one  half  of  what  the  mechanic  receives, 
and  not  one  fourth  of  the  salary  paid  to  the  clerk  or 
salesman  ;  hence  his  inability  to  procure  suitable 
clothing,  sustenance,  or  habitation.  Th6  condition 
of  the  poor  is  truly  deplorable ;  yet  adults,  when  tem- 
perate and  cleanly  in  their  habits,  enjoy  fair  health. 
But  the  arduous  labor  which  persons  of  this  class  un- 
dergo, together  with  the  want  of  wholesome  diet,  effi- 
cient clothing,  and  comfortable  abodes,  are  the  common 
causes  which  deteriorate  their  physical  powers ;  and  this 
deterioration  is  most  conspicuous  in  the  health  of  their 
children.  Scrofulous  diathesis  prevails  ;  their  digest- 
ive organs  are  in  an  abnormal  condition,  and  are  easily 
impaired  by  the  unwholesome  food  dealt  out  to  them  in 
our  grocery  shops ;  and  they  are  rendered  still  worse  by 
habitual  indulgence  at  their  meals,  in  large  quantities 
of  liquid  food,  such  as  soup,  weak  tea  and  coffee,  and 
from  eating  poor  bread  with  a  very  limited  quantity 
of  meat.  Still  more  detrimental  to  their  health  is  the 
indulgence,  in  the  summer  time,  in  fruit,  which  has 
been  rendered  poisonous  by  comparatively  long  expos- 
ure to  noxious  gases  arising  from  other  decomposing 


42 


A  PREMISE  ON  man's  HEALTH. 


matters,  which  gases  are  readily  absorbed  by  all  fruit. 
To  illustrate  this  fact  of  the  absorbing  nature  of  fruit, 
place  some  in  a  drawer  with  camphor  or  a  lemon,  and 
in  a  few  hours  it  will  be  rendered  unpalatable.  The 
same  influence  pertains  to  vegetables,  rendering  them 
very  insipid  compared  with  tliose  freshly  gathered. 

This  combination  of  pernicious  influences,  constant- 
ly operating,  morbidly  changes  all  the  enfeebled  func- 
tions ;  and,  in  direct  ratio  to  the  straitened  circum- 
stances of  the  persons  exposed  to  them,  induces  chronic 
disease,  caries  of  the  spine,  (humpback,)  hip  disease, 
white  swelling,  and  other  scrofulous  alfections.  A 
very  limited  indulgence  in  eating  stale  fruit  and  vege- 
tables, wliile  the  system  is  unfavorably  impressed  by 
warm  weather  and  close  apartments,  produces  cholera 
infantum,  wliich  is  not  unfrequently  followed  by  par- 
alytic seizures  of  one  side — of  an  arm,  a  leg,  or  even  of 
both  legs.  Irritative  fever,  from  teething,  also  causes 
similar  efiects  in  enfeebled  children,  and  not  unfre- 
quently in  children  better  circumstanced.  That  un- 
wholesome food  is  the  most  prolific  cause  of  cholera  in- 
fantum has  been  fully  exemplified,  especially  in  institu- 
tions where  food  for  the  little  patients  is  carefully  select- 
ed and  prepared,  and  where  a  sufiiciency  of  fresh  fruit 
and  vegetables  is  given  daily  during  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, for  under  that  regime  they  have  not  only  escaped 
cholera  infantum,  but  have  progressed  most  favorably. 
This  result  has  been  witnessed  by  the  author  in  the  In- 
stitution for  the  Relief  of  the  Ruptured  and  Crippled, 
of  which  he  has  cliarge.  He  has  even  fouud  the  prog- 
ress, under  such  treatment,  to  be  more  favorable  in 
summer  than  during  the  winter  season,  in  consequence 


VALUE  OF  HYGIENIC  TRAINING. 


43 


of  tlie  patients,  from  tlieir  enfeebled  pliysical  powers, 
requiring  more  warmth  than  they  would  when  in  or- 
dinary healtli. 

Many  scrofulous  patients  are  so  weak  at  first  as  to 
be  unable  either  to  walk,  or,  what  is  worse,  to  have 
control  of  themselves ;  yet,  under  these  very  unfavor- 
able conditions  of  health,  the  little  sulferers,  during 
the  summer  months,  have  had  perfect  immunity  from 
not  only  the  premonitory  symptoms  of  the  fatal  dis- 
ease to  which  allusion  has  been  made — cholera  infan- 
tum— but  also  from  analogous  ailments,  although  at 
the  time  they  have  been  confined  to  the  house,  ow- 
ing to  their  very  infirm  condition  not  permitting 
out-door  exercises. 

The  sad  truths  which  we  have  here  related  invite  re- 
flection in  regard  to  the  situation  of  our  industrious  day- 
laborers,  who  are  compelled,  by  unavoidable  circum- 
stances, to  submit  to  their  sorrow^ful  position.  It  is  cer- 
tainly painful  to  contemplate  that  there  are,  in  this 
land  of  liberty  and  abundance,  the  soil  of  which  yields 
all  that  ^is  necessary  for  man's  health  and  happiness, 
people  so  sunk  in  poverty,  and  doomed  to  severe  labor 
for  a  mere  pittance.  Persons  wdio  are  more  favorably 
situated  can  scarcely  imagine  the  consuming  nature 
of  the  day-laborer's  excessive  toil,  and  how  heavy  is 
the  burden  which  he  is  compelled  to  bear.  But  bod- 
ily suffering  is  not  all  that  he  has  to  endure ;  for  his 
morality  is  seriously  assailed  by  necessitated  associa- 
tion in  tenement  houses  with  the  vile,  the  ignorant, 
and  the  profane. 

The  deplorable  condition  of  moral  and  physical  suf- 
fering, at  present  experienced  by  a  large  number  of 


44 


A  PREMISE  ON  MAn's  HEALTH. 


the  laboring  classes,  can  only  be  alleviated  by  philan- 
tliropy,  and  by  a  knowledge  of  hj^gienic  regime  /  and 
the  latter  is  only  to  be  obtained  by  a  thorough  insight 
into  the  physical  organization  of  the  human  body.  It 
is  tlie  object  of  this  work  to  present  such  an  insight  in 
as  plain  and  comprehensive  a  manner  as  the  subject 
will  admit ;  and  the  writer  trusts  that  an  accurate 
understanding  thereof  will  prove  of  great  advantage 
to  every  grade  of  society. 


PART  II. 

J^UMAN    ;i^NATOMY    AND  j^HYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  1. 


ANIMAL   LIFE — THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM — ASSIMILATION  

NERVOUS   SENSATION   AND  EXHAUSTION. 

How  animal  life  is  sustained — Organization  of  the  animal  system 
in  relation  to  tlie  vital  forces — Nerves,  tlieir  distribution  and 
various  functions — Assimilation  and  growtli  dependent  upon 
involuntary  motion — Nervous  sensation  as  manifested — Ner- 
vous energy,  liow  exhausted,  and  the  means  of  accumulation. 


UK  bodies  are  sustained  and  increased  in  size 


by  aliment  —  solid,  fluid,  and  aeriform  —  elabo- 
rated into  vitalized  or  living  tissues  of  variously  con- 
stituted organs,  the  sustaining  substance  of  wliicli  con- 
sists exclusively  of  organized  matter.  Vegetables  de- 
rive tlieir  nourishment  from  inorganic  matter,  and 
thereby  become  organized  compounds  for  the  nour- 
ishment of  animals. 

Before  considering  the  aliment  which  nourishes  and 
develops  the  human  body,  together  with  the  qualities 
of  such  aliment,  it  is  essential  that  the  reader  should 
be  made  acquainted  w^ith  the  organization  of  the  vital 
forces  which  govern  the  artfully  contrived  form,  made 
up  of  flesh  and  bones.  The  flesh,  or  muscle,  contracts 
and  elongates,  and  thus  causes  motion  and  assists  to 
sustain  the  bones  in  position.  The  flesh  and  bones 
are  surrounded  with  fat  and  membrane,  and  an  outer 
covering  of  skin,  hair,  and  nails — the  whole  constitut- 


48 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


ing  the  fair  form  of  liumanity.  The  heart,  with  its 
numerous  tubes,  known  as  arteries^  sends  forth  blood 
to  the  superficies  and  to  all  internal  parts ;  the  veins 
return  it  again  to  the  heart,  after  it  has  been  operated 
upon  by  various  organs,  each  one  of  which  is  sensible 
only  to  that  portion  of  the  compound  constituting  the 
mass  of  blood  which  is  suited  to  its  own  functions, 
separating  and  appropriating  such  portion  to  a  certain 
use.  The  w^hole  operates  in  unison,  extracting  the 
nutrient  parts  from  the  blood,  and  rejecting  the  use- 
less, w^liich  is  thrown  oft*  as  effete  matter  in  solid,  fluid, 
and  gaseous  forms. 

To  put  the  beautiful  arrangement  of  the  nervous 
system  into  operation  and  to  subject  it  to  control,  there 
is  a  grand  centre — the  brain  and  spinal  marrow — 
>vhich  sends  forth  millions  of  the  most  delicate  fila- 
ments, denominated  nerves  ;  and  these  nerves  convey 
impressions  to  the  great  centre,  whicli  is  the  mysterious 
place  where  soul  and  body  meet.  Here  presides  the 
living  principle  w^liich  is  known  by  its  acts  as  the 
mind  or  will.  It  is  said  that  the  mind  receives  all  the 
impressions  conveyed  by  the  nerves,  just  as  objects 
through  the  medium  of  light  make  impressions  upon 
the  optic  nerve — the  mind  receives  them,  and  we  are 
made  conscious  of  the  object  before  us.  Undulations 
of  air  whicli  are  produced  by  concussion  and  com- 
municate sound  to  tlie  ear,  and  impressions  made  on 
the  organs  of  taste,  smell,  etc.,  are  all  signified  to  the 
mind ;  even  the  prick  of  a  pin  jn  any  part  of  the  body, 
however  remote,  is  instantaneously  transmitted  to  the 
brain.  Heat  and  cold  are  readily  recognized,  and  wg 
are  made  conscious  of  the  effvsct.    The  nerves,  therO' 


THE  NEKVOUS  SYSTEM. 


49 


fore,  are  the  peculiar  and  essential  messengers  of  the 
organs  of  sense,  through  whicli  we  seek  the  interme- 
diate links  between  mind,  bo,dy,  and  tlie  material 
world.  Yet  we,  creatures  of  the  mind,  often  form 
ideas  which  are  deceptive,  in  consequence  of  our  being 
liable  to  a  misconception  of  objects  as  they  really 
exist;  for  it  is  only  by  gradual  tuition  that  we  can 
attain  ability  to  discriminate  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. 

In  the  animal  organization,  assimilation^  or  the 
process  of  formation  and  growth,  is  carried  on  with- 
out consciousness,  by  means  of  internal  nervous  influ- 
ences. And  here  it  must  be  observed  that  the  process 
of  nutrition  progresses  not  only  in  healthy  parts  of 
the  body,  but  in  those  where  the  nerves  of  external 
sensation  and  voluntary  motion  are  paralyzed,  as,  for 
instance,  a  paralyzed  arm  or  leg;  for  in.  them  the 
blood  circulates  and  the  limbs  are  nourished  the 
same  as  if  the  parts  were  not  paralyzed.  Thus  it 
will  be  noticed  that  we  have  a  set  of  nerves  not  sub- 
ject to  the  mind  or  will,  but  still  sustaining  the  func- 
tions of  digestion,  circulation  of  tlie  blood,  secretion, 
and  even,  to  a  limited  extent,  the  restoration  of  parts, 
as  the  healing  of  severed  portions  of  the  flesh  or  bone. 
This  is  denominated  invohmtary  motion^  and  it  con- 
tinues as  long  as  life  exists. 

Communications  are  made  along  the  telegraph  wire 
by  means  of  electricity.  The  nervous  cords  or  tendrils 
convey  communication  in  a  somewdiat  similar  manner, 
for  it  is  through  them  invisibly  and  instantaneously 
transmitted  to  the  great  centre  of  perception.  All 
we  know  of  such  action  is^  that  it  exists^j  and  is  not 


50  HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


manifest  after  deatli ;  consequently,  it  is  the  vital  or 
living  force,  which  under  certain  circumstances  is  in- 
creased or  diminished.  It  is  expended  by  all  the 
motions,  and  most  raj^idly  by  extraordinary  exertion 
of  body  or  mind.  The  laborer  and  the  student,  by 
over- arduous  and  incessant  application,  are  made 
equally  sensible  of  its  failure;  nor  is  the  gourmand 
exempt  from  a  restriction  of  the  supply  of  vital  force, 
which  is  in  his  case  expended  in  digestion.  The 
latter  experiences  his  failure  of  vital  force  by  a  torpid 
condition  and  an  inclination  to  sleep,  induced  by  a 
concentration  of  nervous  energy  in  tlie  digestive  or- 
gans. Though  over-exertion  leads  to  a  desire  for  re- 
pose, the  rest  that  is  obtained  after  intemperance  in  eat- 
ing and  drinking,  or  after  excessive  mental  or  physical 
labor,  is  not  alw^ays  successful  in  its  restorative  pow- 
ers; for  sleep  is  only  intended  by  a  wise  Providence 
to  relieve  those  who  are  temperate  in  their  demands 
upon  the  vital  energy.  Sleep  is  a  necessary  interim 
in  labor,  during  which  time  there  is  an  accumulation 
of  vivified  strength,  sufficient  to  meet  the  ordinary 
requirements ;  and  this  strength  will  increase  by  a 
slow,  gradual  demand  for  it.  Hence,  labor,  mental 
or  physical,  if  gradually  and  regularly. increased,  will, 
after  a  time,  produce  extraordinary  vigor  and  power, 
and  cause  the  digestion  to  increase  almost  to  gluttony. 
Under  such  circumstances,  alcoholic  drink  and  taking 
poisons  to  a  great  extent  may  be  indulged  in.  It  is 
by  this  ability  to  accumulate  nervous  energy  that  we 
are  enabled  to  endure  great  hardships  and  changes  of 
climate. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  SENSORIUM  COMMUNE  MUSCULAR  MOTIOJS". 

All  sensations  are  received  by  tlie  Sensorium  Commune,  and  result 
in  ideas — Impressions  made  upon  the  body  are  recognized  and 
termed  Consciousness — The  pleasurable  senses  of  sight  and 
sound — Advantages  obtained  from  all  the  senses — Musculai 
motion  and  its  advantages — Motion  of  muscles  controlled  by  the 
will,  termed  Voluntary  Motion  —  Organs  of  sense  dependent 
upon  muscular  motion — Nerves  of  voluntary  motion  distinct 
from  nerves  of  sensation,  and  termed  Motor  Nerves. 

IT  is  generally  admitted  that  sensation  arises  from 
the  action  of  natural  ohjects  on  om*  organs;  but 
all  that  we  know  must  be  reflections  of  the  mind.  Any 
thing  we  see  is  impressed  upon  the  eye,  and  deter- 
mined at  the  great  centre,  denominated  the  Sensorium 
Commune.^  from  the  impression  made  upon  that  organ. 
If  we  wish  to  do  any  thing,  the  command  comes  from 
the  great  centre,  and  muscular  movement  is  put  into 
operation.  The  sensations  of  touch,  whether  created 
by  the  fingers  being  placed  upon  an  object,  or  by 
some  impression  made  upon  the  body,  are  received 
upon  a  most  sensitive  orgaur— the  skin — whence  they 
are  conveyed  to  the  great  centre.  The  utterances  of 
the  tongue  are  sounds  producing  undulations  in  the 
atmosphere,  which  act  upon  the  organ  of  sound — the 
ear — and  are  conveyed  to  the  sensorium.    These  sev- 


U.  OF  ILL  LIB. 


52  HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


era!  sensations  are  termed  consciousness^  and  are  either 
pleasurable,  painful,  or  indifferent.  Being  mental 
perceptions,  they  constitute  ideas,  followed  by  the 
emotions  of  thought,  reflection,  and  action. 

When  we  contemplate  the  advantages  and  gratifi- 
cation we  enjoy  from  each  of  our  senses,  and  are  in 
possession  of  all  of  them,  who  can  refrain  from  giving 
thanks  to  that  Almighty  powder  who  has  so  w^onderfully 
blessed  us?  Most  of  our  ideas  owe  their  origin  to  the 
sense  of  sight.  It  is  to  it  that  we  are  mainly  indebted 
for  our  acquaintance  with  the  records  of  knowledge, 
the  thousand  varieties  of  beautiful  birds  and  flowers, 
the  works  of  sculpture  and  painting,  and  the  gay 
tints  of  art,  in  seemingly  endless  diversity,  and  yet 
excelled  by  nature.  And  it  is  through  it  that  we  dis- 
cern every  expression  given  by  the  eye,  "  the  mirror  of 
the  soul,"  in  which  we  behold  intellect,  the  impulses 
of  passion,  of  love,  of  hatred,  and  of  scorn,  as  well 
as  of  apathy  and  ignorance ;  and  lastly,  the  melan- 
choly indications  of  misery  and  death.  If  it  were  not 
for  sight,  where  would  be  our  records  of  past  time  ? 
Where  our  improvements  in  the  sciences,  wdiicli  have 
enabled  us  to  advance  upon  the  experiences  of  those 
who  have  preceded  us  ?  Without  the  eye  there  would 
have  been  neither  art  nor  artist,  nor  any  written  evi- 
dence either  of  human  acquirement  or  of  advance- 
ment in  civilization  ! 

Although  the  advantages  w^hicli  the  sense  of  vision 
has  conferred  upon  us  are  wonderful,  those  which  we 
liave  obtained  through  the  medium  of  the  sense  of 
hearing  are  also  astonishing.  It  is  by  the  ear  that 
man  holds  converse  with  his  fellow-man.  Without 


THE  SENSORIUM  COMMUNE. 


53 


it  we  could  not  enjoy  the  delightful  prattle  of  our 
offspring,  nor  the  cheerful  influence  of  the  sweet 
music  of  the  human  voice,  whether  in  song  or  in 
whispering  words  of  hope  and  consolation.  With- 
out  it  all  would  be  quiet. 

The  sense  of  smell,  too,  when  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  other  senses,  must  be  highly  appreciated. 
It,  likewise,  contributes  greatly  to  our  pleasure.  The 
appearance  of  the  flower  is  not  more  delightful  to  us 
than  the  sweet  odor  wliicli  we  inhale  from  it,  and  it 
is  much  enhanced  in  our  estimation  by  this  property. 
By  the  sense  of  smell  we  are  also  regaled  with  the 
delicious  fragrance  of  our  food,  our  fruits,  and  our 
volatile  oils — the  perfumes  of  the  latter  being  remem- 
brances of  the  flowers  from  which  they  were  extracted. 

Food,  it  will  be  admitted,  is  made  agreeable  by  the 
sense  of  taste,  which,  though  often  abused,  is  not  the 
less  appreciative.  By  this  sense,  we  are  frequently 
enabled  to  detect  what  would  be  pernicious  to  our 
health,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  contributes  largely 
to  our  social  gratification,  and  in  a  manner  which  is 
not  otherwise  obtainable.  A  choice  delicacy  sent  to 
a  sick  friend  often  leaves  upon  the  mind  of  the  invalid 
a  lasting  impression  of  the  kindness  received. 

The  sense  of  touch  resides  in  the  whole  surface  ot 
the  skin,  extending  ever  the  body.  It  is  subject  to 
pleasing  and  painful  impressions,  and  is  one  of  the 
safeguards  of  the  system.  Nearly  all  painful  sensa- 
tions are  confined  to  the  skin,  as  but  slight  pain  is  felt 
after  the  integument  is  removed. 

Our  muscular  eflforts  are  guided  by  the  senses  of 
sight  and  touch.    The  blind  depend  upon  the  latter, 


54  HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


wMcli  becomes  remarkably  exquisite,  and  consequent* 
ly  not  only  enables  tliem  to  prosecute  mechanical 
pursuits  to  a  limited  extent,  but  affords  them  amuse- 
ment in  their  leisure  hours.  It  also  offers  them  the 
consolation  of  being  able  to  read,  by  the  means  of 
raised  letters,  and  thereby  opens  to  them  the  privilege 
of  perusing  the  blessed  Scriptures. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  the  functions 
of  sensation  and  perception  ;  but  how  much  enjoy- 
ment should  we  be  deprived  of  if  we  were  mere  sta- 
tionary objects,  having  no  power  to  move  ourselves 
from  place  to  place!  Under  such  circumstances  we 
should  fail  to  enjoy  the  various  changes  of  scenery 
presented  in  difierent  localities,  and  should  be  denied 
the  many  advantages  we  derive  from  the  movement 
of  our  limbs.  Yet  we  not  only  possess  this  power 
to  move,  but  we  are  endowed  with  the  faculty  of 
spontaneous  action — voluntary  motion,  Tlie  muscles 
move  the  limbs,  the  trunk,  the  head,  and  the  organs 
of  sense;  and  these  movements  are  dependent  upon 
a  set  of  nerves,  distinct  from  those  of  sensation.  The 
mental  act,  or  will  to  move,  is  directed  by  the  great 
sensorium,  through  the  medium  of  what  are  called 
motor  nerves^  which  are  distributed  to  the  muscles 
and  produce  purely  physical  action.  They  thus  differ 
from  those  of  sensation  that  produce  perception,  which 
directs  our  muscular  movements,  enabling  us  to  travel 
and  gratify  our  senses,  and  to  labor  and  thereby  pre- 
serve good  health. 


CHAPTER  III. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  BRAIISr  AND 

The  brain  and  nerves  described — Comparative  view  of  the  lowef  « 
and  higher  order  of  animals — Description  of  the  spinal  cord,  and 
its  distribution  of  nerves — Interniingling"  of  the  spinal  nerves 
with  the  sympathetic  nerve  and  its  ganglions — The  anatomy  of 
the  brain,  illustrating  the  several  portions — The  wonderful  oper- 
ation of  the  nervous  system  beyond  our  comprehension. 

HAVING  slight!)^  noticed  tlie  functions  of  the 
nervous  system,  it  may  not  be  nninteresting 
to  the  reader  that  we  should  now  give  an  outline  of 
the  brain,  the  spinal  marrow,  and  the  nerves. 

The  brain  is  usually  described  as  a  prolongation  of 
the  spinal  marrow,  from  the  fact  that  the  lower  order 
of  animals  have  but  a  very  small  brain,  compared 
with  that  of  man;  and  in  some  animals  having  a 
spine  there  is  scarcely  any  increase  in  size  at  the  be- 
ginning or  end  of  the  spinal  cord.  In  all  animals 
having  vertebrge,  or  spinal  columns  of  backbones,  there 
is  an  elongated  cylindrical-formed  mass  of  matter, 
known  as  the  spinal  marrow^  and,  as  is  the  case  in 
man,  lodged  in  the  canal  formed  by  the  open  rings  in 
each  of  the  backbones.  This  spinal  marrow  or  cord 
is  composed  of  six  parallel  columns,  two  in  front,  two 
in  the  middle,  and  two  on  the  back ;  all  closely 
joined  together,  and  so  conjoined  as  to  form  a  nni- 


56 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


form  cord,  winch  is  of  soft  substance.  On  each  side 
of  the  spinal  cord  or  marrow,  and  between  the  bones, 
there  jjroceed  two  sets  of  nerves — one  set,  coming 
from  the  back  or  posterior  columns,  being  appro- 
priated to  the  functions  of  sensation,  and  the  other, 
arising  from  the  anterior,  to  those  of  voluntary 
motion.  The  nerves  of  sensation  pass  through  a 
small  ganglion,  or  mass  of  nervous  matter,  some  short 
•  distance  from  the  spinal  cord,  and  there  unite  with 
the  nerves  of  voluntary  motion  and  form  a  common 
trunk,  giving  off  fibres  to  the  organs  of  sense,  to  the 
muscles,  and  to  all  parts  where  sensation  and  motion 
are  manifested.  Each  of  these  spinal  nerves  gives 
off  branches  to  the  ganglions  formed  by  the  sym- 
pathetic nerves  which  pass  down  on  each  side  of 
the  spinal  column,  parallel  with  and  near  to  it.  They 
are  quite  peculiar  in  formation,  having  at  intervals 
ganglions  or  eulargements,  and  give  off  nervous  fil- 
aments to  the  organs  not  suhjeot  to  the  will — -described 
in  another  page  of  this  w^ork  as  acting  independent 
of  the  will,  and  denominated  involuntajvij  motion — • 
such  as  respiration,  digestion,  circulation,  restoration 
of  parts,  etc. ;  consequently  their  influence  is  exerted 
on  all  parts  of  the  system,  and  in  sympathy  with  tlie 
other  nerves. 

The  brain  may  be  considered  as  an  expansion  of 
the  upper  portion  of  the  spinal  marrow,  and  is  divid- . 
ed  into  several  lobular  portions.  The  first  is  oblong, 
passing  up  in  front  to  near  the  centre  of  the  brain, 
and  is  termed  the  medulla  ohlongata.  Another  en- 
largement, which  rises  from  the  posterior  or  back 
column,  and  is  styled  the  cere^jellum  or  lesser  brain, 


VERTICAL  SECTION  OP  THE  BRAIN. 


1.  The  cerehellum^  or  lower  portion  of 

the  brain. 

2.  The  cerebrum^  or  upper  portion  of 

the  brain. 

3.  The  medulla  oblongata^  or  upper 

portion  of  the  spinal  marrow. 

4.  The  corpus  callosum.  A  white  band 

that  connects  the  two  hemispheres 
of  the  brain. 

5.  The  septum  lucidum.   A  soft  por- 

tion of  the  brain  that  separates  the 
two  lateral  ventricles. 

6.  The  middle  commissure. 

7.  The  anterior  commissure, 

8.  The  posterior  commissure.,  uniting 

portions  of  the  brain. 


9.  The  optic  nerve,  passing  out  to  the 
eye. 

10.  The  pituitary  gland,  located  in  the 

centre  of  the  base  of  the  brain. 
Its  functions  are  unknown. 

11.  The  arbor  vitce,  or  "tree  of  life." 

The  appearance  of  the  cerebellum 
when  divided  longitudinally. 

12.  The  pons  varolii.   That  portion  of 

the  medulla  oblongata  that  unites 
the  upper  and  lower  portion  of 
the  brain. 

13.  A  transverse  section  of  a  portion 

of  the  spinal  marrow. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  NERYES. 


forms  the  lower  back  part  of  the  brain.  Next  follow 
two  small  lobes,  known  as  the  ojptio  tubercles^  which 
appear  to  spring  from  the  middle  portions ;  and  then 
come  the  large  hemispheres,  called  the  cereljral  hemi- 
spheres^ which  constitute  the  upper  portions,  and  are 
formed  from  the  front  or  anterior  columns  of  the 
spinal  marrow.  In  these  front  lobes  are  found  a  pair 
of  tubercles,  called  the  olfactory  lobes^  and  connected 
with  the  nerves  of  smelling.  There  are  in  addition 
to  the  parts  here  described  several  others  wliich  are 
only  of  interest  to  the  anatomist. 

The  moving  principle  of  all  this  wonderful  arrange- 
ment of  tlie  nervous  system  is  completely  liidden  from 
man,  who  can  only  examine  the  structure  and  behold 
with  admiration  the  eftect  produced  from  surrounding 
influences.  When  it  is  stated  that  the  contraction  of 
the  heart  causes  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  inquiry 
naturally  is  made,  wliat  gives  rise  to  the  contraction  % 
The  reply  is,  the  advent  of  the  fluid  ;  and  thus  we  rea- 
son in  a  circle.  The  impulse  of  the  wdll  causes  muscles 
to  act,  of  which  we  may  not  know  the  existence  or  the 
name  ;  yet,  quicker  than  thouglit,  the  desired  motion 
is  accomplished.  In.  the  performance  of  an  expert 
pianist,  who  touches  the  keys  with  his  fingers,  and 
produces  deflnite  sounds  in  exact  accordance  with  the 
notes  systematically  arranged  to  produce  them,  we 
have  an  inexplicable  operation  of  the  will  and  response 
of  the  muscles.  This  is  evinced  in  the  creation  of  har- 
monious strains  with  a  rapidity  of  motion  that  exceeds 
thought,  the  fingers  and  other  organs  responding  to 
the  impulse  of  the  will.  Examples  of  the  kind  are  of 
such  frequent  occuri'cnce  that  we  do  not  attribute  to 


58 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


thorn  any  tiling  remarkable  ;  but,  upon  reflection,  we 
are  filled  with  astonishment  and  admiration,  and  are 
compelled  to  admit  that  the  elucidation  of  the  matter 
is  far  beyond  the  comprehension  of  our  limited  reason. 


CHAPTER  lY. 
vitality;  or,  the  living  principle— temperaments. 

Vitality,  or  tlie  living  principle  incompreliensible — Whence  energy 
to  support  muscular  motion  is  obtained — Comparative  influence 
of  electricity  in  supplying  nervous  energy — Temperaments,  and 
tlieir  influence  upon  individual  cliaracter — Circumstances  alone 
govern  the  temperaments  of  individuals  for  good  or  evil. 

THE  study  of  the  vital  force  or  living  principle  has 
been  an  unprofitable  one,  and  must  remain  so 
as  long  as  men  persist  in  their  attempts  to  pass  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  reason  and  experience.  Knowledge 
of  the  subject,  sufiicient  for  the  business  of  life,  is 
already  ascertained,  and  any  further  inquiry  into  it 
can  only  prove  a  source  of  useless  and  perhaps  inju- 
rious distraction  of  the  mind. 

All  the  organs,  and  their  relations  with  the  nerves, 
from  wlience  they  derive  their  energy,  which  v;e 
have  just  described,  are  supported  by  the  organs  of 
nutrition.  To  the  latter  we  shall  allude  in  subsequent 
pages  ;  but  we  wish  here  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of 
the  reader  the  fact  that  it  is  upon  the  integrity  of  the 
brain,  nerves,  and  spinal  marrow,  that  all  the  func- 
tions, even  life  itself,  depend  ;  for,  if  the  communica^ 


vitality;  or,  the  living  trikciple. 


59 


tion  be  interrupted,  or  the  nerves  cease  to  act,  partial 
if  not  total  loss  of  power  ensues.  As  to  what  energy 
consists  of,  we  must  repeat,  we  do  not  know.  It  is 
very  similar  to  electricity,  but,  like  gravity,  it  is  a 
name  for  certain  ultimate  phenomena ;  and  this  is 
because  some  nerves  regulate  muscular  motion,  and 
others  are  a  medium  of  sensation  in  general,  while 
there  are  yet  many  more  that  serve  specific  purposes. 
Involuntary  action  is  produced,  the  continuance  where- 
of being  essential  to  life,  it  could  not  be  wholly  left  to 
our  uncertain  attention.  The  manner  in  which  the 
nerves  act,  and  the  functions  of  many  of  them,  are 
unknown  ;  but,  as  their  functions  vary,  nervous  energy 
is  unlike  that  of  electricity,  which,  though  Sir  WiLsoiq" 
Philip  has  made  it  digest  the  food  in  a  rabbit's  stom- 
ach, after  the  destruction  of  the  nerve  which  gives 
energy  to  that  organ,  can  not,  however,  be  made  to 
perform  many  other  functions  than  those  of  a  cura- 
tive nature — such  as  its  employment  as  a  means  of 
renewing  dormant  powers;  and  for  this,  if  judicious- 
ly used,  it  is  a  very  potent  agent,  differing  as  much  in 
its  curative  tendencies  as  in  the  sources  from  whence 
it  is  produced.  It  was  galvanic  electricity  that  pro- 
moted digestion  in  the  rabbit's  stomach ;  but  gal- 
vanic electricity  has  not  proved  very  successful  in 
restoring  nervous  energy  to  the  powers  of  locomo- 
tion. Electricity  produced  by  friction  on  glass,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  succeeded  far  better  in  reinstating 
muscular  energy  in  the  limbs — as  in  cases  of  paraly- 
tic affection  ;  bnt  even  electricity  of  this  nature,  by 
its  continuance  in  force,  does  not  enable  a  man  to 


60 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


walk.  Consequently,  it  is  not  a  substitute  for  nervous 
energy. 

An  exuberance  of  mental  nervous  energy  inducing 
extraordinary  action  demands  attention,  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  often  made  an  excuse  for  actual  excesses,  and 
is  generally  believed  to  be  uncontrollable,  being  re- 
garded as  the  temperament  of  the  individual.  Tem- 
perament, it  is  true,  has  much  to  do  with  the  develop- 
ment and  activity  of  the  physical  powers,  but  it  has 
little  to  do  w^itli  the  direction  of  the  mental;  it  must, 
therefore,  be  considered  an  indulgence  of  an  encour- 
aged propensity,  and  not  an  uncontrollable  disposition. 
If  properly  controlled  and  directed,  it  may  be  made 
of  great  advantage  to  the  individual  blessed  with  an 
extraordinary  quantum  of  nervous  energy,  whether 
used  mentally  or  physically.  Hence  the  ability  of 
some  to  accomplish  greater  achievements  than  others, 
and,  thereby,  become  enabled  to  benefit  their  less- 
favored  fellow-men,  who  are  not  gifted  with  superior 
mental  or  physical  force.  Circumstances  alone  govern 
temperament.  If  a  person  is  carefully  educated,  or  if 
his  course  of  life  is  properly  directed,  v/ith  due  regard 
to  the  leading  traits  of  character,  tlie  temperament 
can  be  restrained,  or  encouraged  and  improved,  by  ju- 
dicious training,  either  mental  or  physical.  Whether 
phlegmatic,  sanguine,  or  bilious  in  temperament,  we 
have  varieties  of  constitution.  Some  persons  are  cold 
and  indiiferent,  but  with  proper  training  they  can  be 
made  mindful  of  their  fellow-creatures,  and,  as  the^ 
are  constant  and  staid  in  their  habits,  contributors  to 
their  happiness.  Others  are  lively  and  ever  ready  to 
enjoy  themselves  even  at  tlie  ex])enBC  of  injuring  tiie 


TEMPERAMENTS. 


61 


feelings  of  tlieir  most  intimate  friends.  Such  are  of  a 
sanguine  temperament,  are  frivolous  in  disposition 
and  acute  in  perception,  but,  under  proper  guidance, 
in  whatever  pursuit  they  are  engaged  in,  their  tenden- 
cy is  to  improve  and  to  complete  with  refinement  and 
elegance.  Their  disposition  is  frank,  courageous,  ani- 
mated, mild,  and  cheerful;  their  memory  is  happy, 
and  their  imagination  lively  and  brilliant.  Further- 
more, they  are  inclined  to  pleasure,  and  prefer  taste 
rather  than  the  indulgence  of  their  passions.  The 
bilious  temperament  is  not  so  easily  defined.  Persons 
thus  constituted  usually  Iiave  a  fine  imagination,  and 
a  solid  and  deliberate  judgment.  They  are  often  con- 
ceited, obstinate,  and  misanthropic ;  have  mdre  genius 
than  wit,  are  ardent  in  pursuit,  and  are  well  calcu- 
lated for  the  investigation  of  abstract  sciences. 

Individuals  possess  these  temperaments  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  ;  consequently,  no  correct  opinion  can 
be  formed  of  any  person  who  is  presumed  to  be  imbued, 
with  one  or  other  of  them,  as  the  constitutions  of 
people  difi*er  so  much,  that  there  exist  as  munj  varie- 
ties as  there  are  individuals.  It  is  only  where  one  or 
other  of  the  temperaments  predominates,  that  the 
traits  of  character  we  have  described  can  apply  with 
an}'  degree  of  plausibility ;  and  even  these,  as  we  have 
just  stated,  are  subject  to  modification  by  education 
and  other  surrounding  infiuences.  Our  pliysical  ener- 
gies are  subordinate  to  our  moral  and  mental  im- 
pulses. The  infiuence  of  man  on  man,  in  modifying 
his  oi'ganization  and  tendencies,  is  only  inferior  to 
that  of  nature  herself. 


CHAPTER  V. 


C0MPLETE2s"ESS  OF  THE  HUMAN  FORM — ORGANS  OF  KU- 
TRITION. 

Admirable  arrangement  of  tlie  liuman  form — >Tlie  importance  of 
the  hand  ahnost  equals  speech — The  various  organs  of  nutrition 
and  their  functions — The  living  animal  form  in  constant  motion, 
thus  expending  sustenance,  termed  Nutrition — Animalized  ma- 
terial— The  process  termed  Assimilation  accomplished  through 
the  organs  of  Circulation  and  Respiration, 

ri^HE  admirable  arrangements  of  the  human  form 
I  merit  special  attention.  The  framework  is  of 
great  strength  and  lightness,  having  hollow  cylinders 
for  shafts,  while  the  contour  is  formed  from  masses  of 
muscular  flesh  which  perform  acts  of  endless  utility, 
the  whole  possessing  great  power,  and  presenting  an 
appearance  of  grace,  beauty,  and  dignity.  The  stat- 
ure is  erect ;  the  limbs  are  supple  and  formed  for  pro- 
gression ;  the  joints  are  well  knit ;  the  feet,  plumb  be- 
neath the  frame,  form  an  ample  base ;  and  the  fingers 
are  fitted  for  innumerable  diversified  appliances.  The 
hand,  in  fact,  almost  equals  in  importance  the  organs 
of  speech.  It  certainly  does  not  reason,  but  still  it  is 
the  willing  attendant  upon  our  thoughts,  and  with  tlie 
pen  and  with  type  perpetuates  the  products  of  the 
intellect,  and  presents  to  the  human  race  the  wisdom 
and  genius  of  superior  minds. 


OBGANS  OF  NUTRITION. 


63 


The  month  is  conveniently  placed  for  the  reception 
of  food,  and  the  well  arranged  teeth,  which  contribute 
much  to  the  beauty  of  the  person,  for  the  mastication 
of  it.  The  brain,  spinal  marrow,  heart,  and  lungs — • 
the  most  vital  organs — are  protected  by  bone ;  and 
beneath  the  bone,  and  extending  over  the  stomach, 
liver,  ahmentary  canal,  and  other  internal  organs,  is  a 
delicate  vesture,  called  the  peritoneum^  which  covers 
the  whole,  and  protects  the  organs  while  in  the  per- 
formance of  their  functions,  namely,  receiving  impres- 
sions, elaborating  nutriment,  and  rejecting  waste  and 
superfluity.  The  lungs  are  so  admirably  constructed, 
that  the  slightest  efi^'ort  fills  their  cells  with  air ;  the  eyes 
and  ears  are  so  situated  as  to  be  enabled' to  receive 
impressions  most  readily,  without  being  incommoded; 
and  the  limbs  are  so  adjusted  and  placed  as  to  give 
them  the  greatest  possible  latitude  of  movement.  In 
a  word,  every  portion  of  the  human  frame  has  been 
arranged  in  the  manner  best  fitted  to  adapt  all  parts 
to  the  exigencies  of  our  position. 

The  human  form,  like  all  other  animal  forms,  is, 
wdiile  under  the  influence  of  life  or  the  vital  forces, 
in  continual  voluntary  or  involuntary  motion.  This 
motion  can  not  be  maintained  without  some  sustaining 
medium  that  will  suffice  for  the  proper  action  of  the 
organism  f?fr  the  renovation  of  parts,  for  which  pur- 
pose new  materials  are  wanted  and  must  be  regularly 
supplied.  Hence  there  exists  a  class  of  functions 
which  perform  a  great  number  of  operations  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  vitality,  and  are  comprehended 
under  the  title  of  mitrition.  Organized  food  is  not 
only  indispensable,  but  it  must  possess  the  chemical 


64 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


properties  of  tlie  animal  substances  with  wliicli  it 
is  to  be  afterward  incorporated ;  and  by  being  act- 
ed upon  by  certain  organs,  it  undergoes  a  suitable 
change.  This  action  is  known  as  assimilation^  of 
which  digestion  forms  the  principal  part.  The  next 
operation  in  the  system  is  the  distribution  of  this  ani- 
malized  nutriment,  which  is  formed  into  blood  and 
disseminated  wherever  it  is  wanted.  The  necessary 
motions  for  this  purpose  are  given  to  the  blood  by 
the  organs  of  circulation.  The  principal  of  these  is 
the  hearty  which  great  vital  organ  impels  the  blood 
through  the  arteries  and  receives  it  back  again  by 
the  veins.  The  next  process  is  the  purification  of  the 
blood  by  the  chemical  action  of  oxygen  upon  the  accu- 
mulated carbon.  This  is  accomplished  by  respiration. 
Another  stage  of  nutrition  appertains  to  the  more 
immediate  application  of  the  purified  material  to  the 
wants  of  the  system — to  the  growth  of  the  organs,  to 
the  reparation  of  their  losses,  and  to  the  restoration 
of  their  exhausted  powers. 

We  may  regard  life  as  a  continued  series  of  actions 
and  reactions,  ever  varying,  yet  constantly  tending  to 
definite  ends.  Most  of  the  parts  of  which  the  body 
consists  undergo  continual  and  progressive  changes  in 
their  dimensions  ;  the  materials  that  have  ^een  united 
together  and  fashioned  into  the  several  organs,  are  re- 
moved and  replaced  by  fresh  materials,  which,  in  their 
turn,  are  supplanted  by  new  ones,  though  without  any 
perceptible  change  of  external  form.  In  fact,  all  parts 
of  our  bodies  are  constantly  undergoing  transforma- 
tion, and  contributing  to  our  necessities  by  the  very 
means  from  which  we  obtain  warmth  and  strength. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


MUSCULAR  MOTION"  AND  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

Man's  inability  to  approacli  in  completeness  nature's  works — Con- 
tractility constitutes  all  muscular  motion — The  heart  a  power- 
ful muscular  motion,  sustaining  the  circulation  of  the  blood — 
The  anatomy  of  the  heart  fully  described. 


T  is  only  by  life  or  the  living  principle  that  organic 


-i  forms  are  prochiced.  Human  power  can  never 
approach  in  completeness  the  most  simple  of  nature's 
works.  The  living  body  differs  from  inorganic  ma- 
chinery, as  it  contains  within  itself  a  principle  of  mo- 
tion not  referrible,  as  for  as  we  can  perceive,  to  any 
primary  forces  which  exist  in  the  inanimate  world. 
This  principle,  which  has  been  termed  contractility^ 
produces  the  action  of  muscles,  and  enables  the  heart 
and  arteries  to  propel  the  blood  to  the  superficies  and» 
all  parts  of  the  animal  structure. 

The  hearty  a  powerful  muscular  organ,  receives  a 
constant  stream  of  blood,  which  gradually  dilates  an 
apartment,  denominated  the  auricle^  the  muscular 
fibres  of  which  do  not  contract  until  they  are  stretched 
beyond  a  certain  point,  when,  w^ith  a  sudden  impulse, 
the  blood  is  thrown,  into  another  apartment  called  the 
ventricle.  The  ventricle,  being  rapidly  distended,  is 
excited  to  a  quick  and  forcible  contraction,  and  pro- 


66  HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


pels  the  blood  into  tlie  artery  with  an  impulse  incom- 
parably greater  than  could  liave  resulted  from  the 
action  of  the  auricle  alone  ;  and,  to  prevent  a  retro- 
grade motion,  very  perfect  valves  are  interposed  be- 
tween the  auricle  and  the  ventricle. 

The  auricle  receives  blood  from  two  sources,  the 
upper  and  lower  vence  cavce.  The  valves  are  composed 
of  two  loose  membranes,  the  outer  edges  of  whicli  are 
attached  ch'cularly  to  the  aperture  of  communication 
between  the  cavities,  and  the  inner  edges  project 
into  the  ventricle.  By  this  means  they  perform,  as  it 
were,  the  office  of  floodgates,  as  they  allow  a  free  pas- 
sage to  the  blood,  when  it  is  impelled  into  the  ven- 
tricles, and  are  pushed  back  the  moment  the  ventricle 
contracts;  in  w^iich  latter  case  they  concur  in  accu- 
rately closing  the  aperture,  and  preventing  the  return 
of  blood  into  the  auricle.  These  valves  being  attach- 
ed to  a  wide  circular  aperture,  are  consequently  re- 
strained from  inserting  themselves  into  the  auricle. 
Each  ventricle  is  provided  with  slender  muscular 
cords,  fixed  by  one  end  to  the  edge  of  the  valve,  and 
by  the  other  to  a  part  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  ven- 
tricle. By  this  arrangement  the  valve  is  always  kept 
within  the  cavity  of  the  ventricle,  while  the  blood  is 
propelled  through  the  great  artery  termed  the  aoi^ta. 
In  the  auricles,  the  same  purpose  is  answered  by  the 
oblique  direction  in  which  the  veins  enter  it.  The 
arteries,  when  distended,  also  contract,  and  in  the 
aorta  there  are  valves.  These  valves  consist  of  three 
membranes,  which  have  the  form  of  a  crescent,  and 
are  capable  of  closing  the  passage  so  closely  that  a 
drop  of  blood  can  not  pass  between  them. 


CIKCULATIOK  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


67 


From  the  aorta,  large  arteries  are  given  off,  and 
from  these  arteries  numerous  branches  divide  and 
subdivide,  till  the  ramifications  arrive  at  an  extreme 
degree  of  minuteness,  and  are  finally  distributed  to 
every  organ  and  to  the  remotest  parts  of  tlie  system. 
And  that  parts  may  be  provided  for,  in  case  of  ob- 
structions, they  frequently  communicate  with  one 
another,  and  are  said  to  anastomose.  The  smallest  of 
them,  which  are  finer  than  hairs,  are  termed  cajpillary 
vessels;  these  frequently  form  disfiguring  blotches 
upon  the  face,  and  particularly  upon  the  faces  of  in- 
fants. After  the  blood,  with  the  required  nourish- 
ment, has  been  conveyed  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  it 
is  carried  back  to  the  heart,  as  we  have  previously 
stated,  by  the  veins.  The  latter  commence  at  the  ex- 
treme ramifications  of  the  arteries,  and,  in  their  pro- 
gress to  the  heart,  the  smaller  branches  join  in  succes- 
sion to  form  larger  trunks  till  they  finally  unite  in  the 
vena  cava. 

Of  the  veins,  the  larger  are  more  numerous  than 
the  arteries,  and  many  of  them  are  supplied  with 
valves,  thus  diff'ering  from  the  arteries,  as  in  the  latter 
there  are  valves  only  in  the  aorta.  These  valves  are 
more  especially  provided  in  the  veins  that  pass  over 
the  muscles  of  the  extremities,  or  which  run  imme" 
diately  beneath  the  skin,  and  all  open  in  the  direction 
of  the  heart  ;  consequently,  as  long  as  the  blood  flows 
in  its  natural  course,  it  meets  with  no  impediment, 
whilst  a  retrograde  motion  is  eflfectnally  prevented. 

The  communication  of  the  capillaries.witli  the  veins 
is  readily  discovered  under  the  microscope,  especially 
in  frogs  and  fishes,  whose  membranes  arc  very  trans- 


68 


HUMAN  ANATOMY   AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


parent.  Lewenhoek,  on  examining  the  eircnlation  in 
tadpoles,  expressed  himself  in  tlie  following  terms : 
"  The  pleasure  has  oftentimes  been  so  recreating  to 
me,  that  I  do  not  believe  that  all  the  pleasure  of  foun- 
tains or  water- works,  either  natural  or  made  by  art, 
could  have  pleased  my  sight  so  well  as  the  view  of 
these  creatures  has  given  me."  Phil,  Trains,  xxii.  453. 

The  color  of  the  blood,  when  conveyed  by  the  ar- 
teries, is  bright  scarlet,  and,  when  returned  by  the 
veins,  dark  purple — the  change  being  caused  by  the 
quantity  of  carbon  that  has  been  thrown  into  the 
stream.  After  the  blood  has  reentered  the  heart,  it 
requires  to  be  purified  and  again  fitted  for  arterial 
circulation,  an  operation  which  is  performed  by  the 
lungs  and  by  a  distinct  set  of  arteries  and  veins.  The 
vessels  we  have  already  described  are  subservient  to 
nutrition,  and  are  termed  the  greater  systemiG  circu- 
lation. Those,  however,  which  circulate  the  blood 
through  the  lungs  for  the  purpose  of  purification 
air,  compose  the  system  of  the  lesser  or  Tespiratory 
circulation. 

The  blood  passes  alternately  through  the  greater 
and  lesser  circulations — a  complete  apparatus  being 
provided  for  each.  The  two  compartments  on  the 
left  side  impel  the  blood  through  the  greater  systemic 
circulation,  wdiile  those  on  the  right  side  are  appro- 
priated to  the  lesser,  or  respiratory  circulation.  Thus 
the  blood,  in  its  passage  through  the  human  system, 
takes  the  following  course  :  From  the  left  ventricle  it 
is  propelled  iixto  the  aorta,  and  thence  diff'ased  througli 
the  arteries  to  every  part  of  the  system,  finally  ])ene- 
trating  into  all  the  capillary  vessels.    From  the  latter 


THE  HEART  AND  BLOOD-VESSELS. 


GREATER  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM, 

by  which  the  blood  is  distributed  to  all 
parts  of  the  body. 

A,  the  aorta^  or  great  artery,  whence 
is  distributed  the  blood  which  is  impel- 
led into  it  from  B,  the  left  ventricle. 

Branches  of  the  Arteries. — C,  arteria 
innominata.  D,  right  carotid.  E,  right 
siMavian.  F,  left  carotid.  G,  left  si(>b- 
claman. 

The  Veins. — H,  ascending  xena  cava., 
which  returns  the  blood  from  all  parts  of 
the  body  and  limbs  to  I,  the  right  auricle. 
J,  the  descending  mna  cara.^  which  con- 
veys the  blood  from  the  head  to  the  right 
auricle,  whence  it  is  forced  into  K,  the 
right  ventricle. 


LESSER  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM. 

K,  the  right  ventricle,  which  forces  the 
blood  through  the  pulmonary  artery. 
L  L,  branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery, 
by  which  the  blood  is  conducted  to  the 
lungs  to  be  changed  into  arterial  blood. 
M  M  M  M,  iouY  jyulmonary  veins,  by  which 
the  arterialized  blood  is  conveyed  to  N, 
the  left  auricle,  to  be  forced  into  B,  the 
left  ventricle,  and  thence  to  A,  the  aorta. 

O,  an  outline  of  pericardium,  which 
incloses  the  heart. 

P  P,  the  lungs,  drawn  small  compara- 
tively to  the  size  of  the  heart. 

Q,  the  trachea,  or  windpipe,  and  its 
branch  to  each  lung. 

[Page  08. 


CIKCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


69 


it  flows,  in  its  return  to  the  heart,  through  the  veins 
and  the  venoG  cavce  to  the  right  auricle,  which  delivers 
it  into  the  right  ventricle.  This  right  ventricle  then 
impels  the  blood,  thus  received,  into  the  pulmonary 
arteries  of  the  lungs,  whence  it  is  distributed  and 
acted  upon  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  inhaled ;  and  it 
is  next  conveyed  by  the  pulmonary  veins  into  the  left 
auricle,  which  throws  it  into  the  left  ventricle,  the 
point  where  it  commenced  its  course.  The  right  and 
left  cavities  are  kept  perfectly  distinct  from  one 
another,  and  are  separated  by  thick  partitions — the 
wdiole  being  inclosed  in  one  envelope  termed  tliej^^W- 
cardium.  The  two  auricles  and  the  two  ventricles 
act  in  the  following  manner:  At  the  moilient  when 
the  left  ventricle  is  propelling  its  aerated  blood  into 
the  aorta  for  the  purpose  of  general  nutrition,  the 
right  ventricle  is  driving  the  vitiated  blood  into  the 
pulmonary  artery  of  the  lungs,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
purified  by  the  influence  of  the  air.  Consequently, 
the  same  blood,  which,  during  the  interval  of  one 
pulsation,  w^as  passing  through  the  lungs,  is,  in  the 
next,  circulating  through  the  body ;  and  thus,  the 
contractions  of  the  auricles  and  ventricles  impelling 
the  blood  through  the  arteries  to  be  returned  by  the 
veins,  all  concur  in  the  same  general  end. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


PROCESSES  OF  DIGESTION  AND  NUTRITION. 

Nutrition,  as  supplied  to  the  system  through  the  Lacteals,  tenni 
nates  in  the  Thoracic  Duct^Ghyle  the  product  of  digestion- 
Change  in  the  mass  of  food  eaten  first  takes  place  in  the  stomach 
— Gastric  fluid  reduces  all  natural  fluid  to  a  pulp,  which  is  acted 
upon  by  a  peculiar  motion  of  the  stomach — Chyme  is  formed 
in  the  stomach  and  Cliyle  in  the  intestines. 

THE  blood  being  tlie  medium  througli  which  nu- 
triment is  distributed  to  the  several  parts  of  the 
body,  there  is  a  constant  diminution  in  the  quantity 
of  that  fluid  which  must  be  supplied ;  therefore,  for 
the  purpose  of  such  supply,  we  have  another  set  of 
circulating  vessels,  called  lacteals^  which  terminate 
in  the  ihoraciG  duct^  and  this  thoracic  duct  conveys 
what  is  called  chyle  into  one  of  the  large  veins  near 
the  left  auricle  of  the  heart.  Chyle  is  elaborated  by 
the  vital  or  living  forces  of  the  digestive  organs  ;  and 
for  its  nutritious  qualities  is  dependent  upon  the 
healthy  condition  of  those  organs  and  on  the  quality 
of  the  food  taken. 

Digestion  requires  first  the  mechanical  operation 
of  the  mouth.  The  food  is  masticated  by  the  jaws 
and  teeth,  and  is,  at  the  same  time,  intermixed  with 
the  fluid  secretions  of  the  mouth,  from  whence  it 
passes  through  the  muscular  tube  or  throat,  called 


PROCESS  OF  NTJTKITION. 


11 


mojpTiagiis^  into  the  stomacli,  the  entrance  of  which 
is  termed  the  cardia  or  cardiac  orifice  of  the  stomach. 

In  the  stomach  tlie  food  undergoes  various  changes; 
and  it  is  in  it  that  the  first  digesting  process  takes 
place.  What  is  called  chyme  is  here  formed,  and 
here  the  nutritious  matter  is  prepared  to  pass  through 
the  pylorus^  or  pyloric  orifice  of  the  stomach,  into  the 
intestines.  In  the  intestines  it  is  further  subjected  to 
the  action  of  several  fluid  secretions  derived  from  the 
liver  and  pancreas.  These  secretions,  acting  upon  the 
mass,  produce  from  it  chyle,  ready  to  be  absorbed  by 
the  lacteals.  With  open  mouths,  the  lacteals  arise 
from  the  inner  surface  of  the  intestines  and  pass  along 
a  membrane  termed  the  mesentery ^  wliich'  connects 
the  intestines  to  the  back.  These  lacteals  form  trunks 
which  increase  in  size  until  they  terminate  in  a  reser- 
voir, or  receptacle  of  the  chyle.  From  this  reservoir 
proceeds  the  thoracic  duct^  which  passes  along  the  side 
of  the  spine  upward  to  the  vein,  and  enters  the  left 
auricle,  where  it  deposits  the  chyle  into  the  blood, 
which  latter  passes  into  the  ventricle  to  be  thrown  out 
to  all  parts  of  the  system.  It  is  thus  that  nourishment 
is  distributed.  Each  organ  selects  its  own  peculiar  nu- 
triment, when  new  products  are  formed  and  new  pro- 
perties acquired,  adapted  to  the  respective  purposes 
which  they  are  to  serve  in  the  animal  economy.  The 
whole  is  subservient  to  the  higher  purposes  of  vitality, 
and  these  powers  themselves  minister  to  the  more 
exalted  faculties  of  sensation  and  intellect. 

It  would  appear  to  be  in  the  stomach  that  the  first 
change  takes  place  in  the  mass  of  food  eaten.  This 
organ  is  exceedingly  simple  in  form  in  the  liumau 


72 


HUMAN  ANATOMY   AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


family,  being  merely  a  receptacle.  The  duodenum  is 
the  first  part  of  the  intestinal  canal,  commencing  at 
the  pyloric  orifice  or  exit  of  the  stomach,  and  termi- 
nating in  the  jejunum.  Its  length  is  about  twelve 
fingers'  breadth,  and,  as  it  is  only  partially  covered  by 
\hQi  jperitoneum^  it  is  susceptible  of  considerable  dila- 
tation. The  pyloric  passage  is  constricted  by  a  fold  of 
the  inner  membrane,  which  latter  is  surrounded  by  a 
circular  band  of  muscular  fibres.  This  band  performs 
the  office  of  a  valve  or  sphincter,  and  completely 
closes  the  orifice  of  the  stomach  during  the  digestion 
of  its  contents. 

The  principal  agent  in  digestion,  as  far  as  chemical 
means  are  concerned  in  that  operation,  and  as  influ- 
enced by  the  vital  force,  is  a  fluid  secreted  by  the 
coats  of  the  stomach,  and  termed  gastric  juice.  This 
fluid  reduces  all  natural  food  to  a  pulp,  and  is  said  to 
]30ssess  different  qualities  in  different  animals,  acting 
only  upon  the  food  peculiar  to  the  animal. 

Sir  EvERARD  Home  has  devoted  much  attention  to 
the  structure  and  action  of  the  stomach,  and  it  has 
been  discovered  that  a  peculiar  motion  is  produced, 
w^hich  completely  intermixes  the  gastric  juice  with  the 
mass  of  food.  When  different  portions  act  in  succes- 
sion, they  propel  the  food  from  one  part  to  another, 
and  thus  promote  the  mixture.  The  food  remains  for 
some  time  in  the  stomach,  in  order  to  be  perfectly 
digested,  for  the  accomplishment  of  whicli  purpose  the 
closing  of  the  pyloric  orifice  would  seem  to  be  in- 
tended. The  gastric  jnice  possesses  a  j)eculiar  pro- 
perty of  coagulating  fluid  albumen,  such  as  the  wliite 
of  eggs,  or  milk;  but  it  is  not  like*  to  an  acid,  as  albu- 


PEOCESS  OF  DIGESTION. 


73 


minous  substances  are  not  rendered  sour  or  acid  wlien 
a  natural  condition  exists.  It  is  supposed  that  tins 
change  from  fluid  to  solid  is  for  the  purpose  of  detain- 
ing the  food  for  some  time  in  the  stomach — all  fluids, 
if  not  in  excess,  readily  passing  off — and  thus  preparing 
it  to  be  thoroughly  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  powers 
of  the  stomach.  We  may  hence  infer  that  much  fluid 
interrupts  the  process  of  digestion  ;  but  of  this  we 
will  treat  in  another  chapter.  Another  remarkable 
property  of  the  gastric  juice  is,  that  it  corrects  and 
arrests  putrefaction.  This  is  exemplified  in  animals 
which  feed  on  carrion,  as  they  are  enabled  to  derive 
wholesome  food  from  materials  w^hich  would  other- 
wise taint  the  whole  system  with  poison  ancl  be  de- 
structive to  them.  "  Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
gastric  juice  is  a  peculiar  animal  secretion  essential  to 
digestion. 

The  food,  having  passed  througli  the  pyloric  orifice, 
is  now  subjected  to  a  further  process  of  digestion,  and 
the  formation  of  chyle  commences  in  the  intestines. 
This  chyle  is  formed  out  of  the  chyme  produced  by 
the  stomach.  Provision  is  made  in  the  interior  of 
the  intestinal  canal  for  subjecting  its  contents,  Jlrst. 
to  the  action  of  an  extensive  vascuUir  and  nervous 
surface  or  great  diff"usion  of  small  blood-vessels;  and 
secondly^  to  various  secretions  derived  from  the  liver 
and  other  sources  which  exercise  powerful  chemical 
changes  on  the  digested  aliment.  When  the  system  is 
in  a  healthy  condition,  a  vigorous  muscular  action  is 
exerted,  termed  the  peristaltic  motion;  while  inter- 
ruptions, caused  by  irregularities  in  a  portion  of  the 
intestinal  canal,  tend  to  retard  the  progress  of  the 


^4  HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

aliment  in  its  passage  tlirougli,  so  that  it  may  receive 
the  full  action  of  these  several  agents  and  yield  the 
ntmost  quantity  of  nutriment.  As  we  have  already 
stated,  the  chyle  is  taken  up  by  the  lacteals,  to 
be  conveyed  by  the  tlioracic  duct  to  one  of  the 
large  veins  near  the  heart.  This  is  the  course  which 
every  particle  of  nutriment  has  to  take  to  nourish  the 
system. 

The  chemical  composition  of  chyle  appears  to  be 
very  analogous  to  that  of  blood,  into  wliicli  it  is  con- 
verted, and  by  it  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  system,  to 
be  deposited  in  the  various  organs,  where  it  replaces 
the  particles  no  longer  of  use,  which  latter  are  con- 
veyed by  tlie  veins  and  finally  thrown  off  as  effete 
matter. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    DEPURATION    OF    THE    BLOOD    AND   EVOLUTION  OP 
HEAT. 

Blood  is  purified  in  the  skin  and  lungs,  and  lieat  is  thereby  deve- 
loped— Structure  of  tlie  lungs  described — Their  functions. 

A SECOND  essential  object  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  is  the  transmission  of  the  nu- 
tritive matter  to  certain  organs,  where  it  is  subjected 
to  the  influence  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  ;  a 
process  w^liich,  in  all  warm-blooded  animals,  com- 
bined with  the  rapid  and  extensive  distribution  of  the 
blood,  diffuses  and  maintains  throughout  the  body  the 


DEPUKATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


75 


high  temperature  required  by  the  greater  energy  of 
the  system.  Hence,  a  vigorous  influence  is  exerted  in 
the  hmgs  upon  the  blood,  for  the  purpose  of  eliminat- 
ing from  it  heat,  the  result  of  powerful  chemical 
action.  And  the  energy  of  every  function  is  regu- 
lated in  a  great  measure  by  the  quantity  of  blood  re- 
ceived by  the  organs  so  operating.  The  muscles  of 
the- leg  or  arm,  if  extraordinarily  exercised,  are  not 
only  of  a  deeper  color,  but  they  maintain  a  greater 
amount  of  warmth,  and  are  much  stronger  than  limbs 
not  so  exercised. 

Tlie  lungs  consist  of  an  assemblage  of  vesicles  into 
which  the  air  is  admitted  by  a  tube,  called  the  trachea 
or  windpipe,  which  extends  downward  from  the  back 
of  the  mouth,  and  parallel  with,  but  in  front  of  the 
msophagus  or  throat.  The  entrance  to  the  windpipe 
is  carefully  provided  with  a  cartilaginous  valve, 
termed  the  epiglottis^  which  is  made  to  close  by  the 
action  of  the  muscles  that  perform  deglutition  or 
swallowing,  just  previous  to  the  passage  of  what  is 
to  be  swallowed.  Thus,  great  care  is  taken  to  guard 
this  passage  against  the  entrance  into  it  of  any  solid 
or  liquid  food.  At  the  upper  part  of  the  chest,  the 
trachea  divides  into  two  tubes  called  the  ironckia^ 
which  pass  to  the  lungs  on  either  side.  Both  the 
windpipe  and  the  bronchia  are  kept  open  by  firm 
cartilaginous  rings  which  are  interposed  betw^een  their 
inner  and  outer  coats,  and  are  placed  at  short  and 
equal  distances  from  one  another.  The  natural  elas- 
ticity of  these  rings  also  tends  to  control  the  calibre 
of  the  tubes  when  breathing,  ia  addition  to  causing 
them  to  remain  open.     The  bronchia  then  divide 


^6 


HUAIAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


and  snbdivicle  in  regnlar  order,  and  brancli  like  a  tree 
throngh  all  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  until  their  ten- 
der extremities  terminate  in  the  air  cells.  The  carti- 
lages of  the  bronchia,  situated  near  the  trachea,  re- 
semble the  trunk  of  a  tree,  but  the  rest,  like  small 
branches,  become  weaker,  more  oblique  and  irregular, 
and  further  removed  from  eacli  other,  until  the  ex- 
tremities are  little  more  than  membraneous  tubes. 

The  hronchial  cells^  into  which  the  air  is  admitted 
in  respiration  or  breathing,  are  spiral,  and  are  at- 
tached to  terminal  branches  of  the  bronchia.  They 
have  no  communication  with  each  other,  but  are  held 
together  by  a  minute  cellular  texture.  Hales  esti- 
mated that  these  cells  were  one  hundredth  part  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  that  their  extended  surface  was 
ten  hundred  and  thirty-five  square  inches.  It  is 
pretty  generally  admitted  that,  on  an  average,  forty 
cubic  inches  of  air  are  alternately  taken  in  and  ex- 
pelled at  each  ordinary  act  of  breathing ;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  about  one  hundred  and  seventy  cubic 
inches  more  may  be  forcibly  expelled  after  a  common 
expiration,  such  as  coughing,  straining,  etc.  After 
that  the  lungs  would  contain  within  them  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  cubic  inches.  Upon  this  estimate 
there  remain  in  . the  lungs,  after  an  usual  expiration, 
two  hundred  and  ninety  cubic  inches  of  air  ;  and  upon 
inspiration  there  are  three  hundred  and  thirty  in 
them,  which  is  the  measure  of  their  capacity  in  a  dis- 
tended state.  Since  forty  is  nearly  the  one  eighth  of 
three  hundred  and  thirty,  it  follows  that  it  is  only 

about  one  eidith  of  the  whole  air  in  the  luna:s  w^hich 
<->  fit 

undergoes  a  change  during  each  successive  act  of 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LUNGS. 


11 


breathing.  Still,  we  possess  the  power  of  expelling, 
by  a  forcible  expiration,  fully  two  thirds  of  the  entire 
quantity. 

It  is  on  these  bronchial  cells  that  the  ultimate 
branches  of  the  pulmonary  arteries  and  veins  are  dis- 
tributed, and  inosculate  or  enter  each  other.  The 
thin  membrane  of  the  cells  and  the  coats  of  these 
minute  vessels  do  not  prevent  the  influence  of  the  air 
upon  the  circulating  blood;  and  it  is  here  that  the 
great  chemical  change  in  the  blood  takes  place — a  fact 
which  should  remind  us  that  the  lungs  are  extremely 
delicate  organs,  and  how  necessary  it  is  that  they 
should  be  naturally  protected. 

The  cavity,  or  chest,  in  which  the  lungs',  together 
with  the  heart  and  its  great  blood  vessels,  are  inclosed, 
is  termed  the  thorax^  and  is  somewhat  conical  in 
form.  The  contents  of  the  thorax  are  defended  from 
compression  by  the  ribs,  which  extend  from  the  spine 
to  the  sternum  or  breast-bone  and  produce  mechanical 
support,  and  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  enlarge  or 
diminish  the  cavity  and  promote  breathing.  The  base 
of  the  cone  is  inclosed  by  what  is  called  the  dia- 
jpTiragm^  which  divides  the  chest  from  the  abdomen, 
and  forms  a  complete  partition.  Being  a  muscle,  the 
diaphragm  can  be  extended  or  contracted.  It  is  per- 
forated, close  to  its  origin  from  the  spine  or  backbone, 
by  four  tub)es,  namely,  the  oesophagus^  the  aorta^  the 
vena  cava^  and  the  tTioraciG  duct  The  diaphragm  is 
convex,  inward  to  the  thorax  or  chest ;  and  the  direc- 
tion of  its  muscular  fibres  is  such  that,  when  those 
fibres  contract  thej^  bring  down  the  middle  part, 
which  is  tendinous,  and  render  it  more  flat;  and 


18 


HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


then,  when  the  ribs  are  raised,  tlie  cavity  of  tlie  tho- 
rax is  considerably  enlarged.  The  air  in  the  lungs, 
by  its  elasticity,  expands  the  cells  and  draws  in  more 
air  till  tlie  lungs  are  filled  ;  this  is  termed  inspiration. 
The  air  is  again  thrown  out  by  a  reverse  action,  when 
the  diaphragm  tends  upward  and  the  ribs  are  lowered ; 
this  is  termed  expiration.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
freedom  from  restraint,  in  order  that  a  natural  process 
of  breathing  may  be  maintained  and  the  blood  there- 
by fully  acted  upon,  an  operation  which  is  of  essen- 
tial benefit  to  the  general  health. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  VOCAL  OEGANS. 

Tlie  vocal  organs  described — The  Human  Voice  capable  of  every 
possible  sound — How  sound  is  produced. 

THE  upper  portion  of  the  windpipe  is  formed  by 
four  cartilaginous  rings,  termed  respectively 
thyroid^  cricoid^  and  two  arytenoid.  These  rings 
have  a  number  of  small  muscles  attached  to  them, 
and  are  lined  by  a  mucous  membrane,  the  latter  hav- 
ing certain  membraneous  reflections  which  constitute 
the  superior  ligaments  of  the  glottis^  or  opening  of 
the  windpipe.  This  opening  is  covered  by  the  ep)i' 
glottis  already  described.  The  several  parts  licre  men- 
tioned constitute  the  organs  of  speech,  or  vocal  appa- 
ratus, termed  the  larynx.    Professor  Charles  Bell, 


LARYNX,  OR  ORGAN  OF  THE  VOICE. 

1  1.  The  superior  cornu,  2.  The  cricoid  cartilage,  3.  The  posterior  crico 
arytmoid  ligament.  4.  The  arytenoidus  muscle.  5.  The  arytenoid  cartilage. 
6.  The  rima  glottidis.,  or  opening  to  the  windpipe.  7.  The  chorda  xocalis. 
8.  The  thyro-arytenoid  muscle.  9.  The  crico-arytenoid  muscle.  10.  The  border 
of  the  thyroid  cartilage. 

SIDE  VIEW  OF  THE  LARYNX. 

A.  The  weal  chords.  B.  The  arytenoid  fold.  1.  The  ejnglottis.  2.  Opening 
vf  the  glottis.  3.  The  arytenoid  cartilage.  4.  The  arytenoid  ejnglottidean  bor- 
der. 5.  The  aryteiwidean  muscle.  6.  The  arytenoidean  cartilage.  7.  The 
thyro-arytenoid  muscle.  8.  The  crico-arytenoideus  muscle.  9.  The  crico-ary- 
tenoideus  posticus.  10.  (^ricoid  cartilage.  11.  The  tJiyro-epiglottidean  muscle. 
This  muscle  draws  down  the  epiglottis  to  close  the  entrance  to  the  windpipe. 
12.  A  cartilaginous  ring  of  the  trachea.,  or  windpipe. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS. 


79 


who  lias  given  this  subject  much  consideration,  says : 
"  The  voice  commences  in  the  larynx,  but  rever- 
berates downward  into  the  trachea  and  even  into  the 
chest,  whilst  it  may  be  directed  with  different  effect 
into  the  cavities  of  the  head,  mouth,  and  throat." 

The  organ  of  the  voice  is,  strictly  speaking,  neither 
a  stringed  instrument,  nor  a  drum,  nor  a  pipe,  nor  a 
horn  ;  but  it  is  all  of  these  together.  We  shall  not  be 
surprised  at  this  complication  if  we  will  only  take 
the  trouble  to  consider  that  the  human  voice  is  ca- 
pable of  every  possible  sound — that  it  can  imitate 
every  beast  and  every  bird— that  it  is  more  perfect 
than  any  musical  instrument  yet  invented — and  that, 
in  addition  to  the  intonation  of  every  variety  of  mu- 
sical note,  it  is  capable  of  giving  utterance  to  all  the 
combinations  in  articulate  language  which  ai'e  heard 
in  the  different  nations  of  the  earth.  The  essential 
and  primary  part  of  the  organ  is  the  tliyreo-arytenoid 
ligaments,  termed  cordce  vocales.  The  membrane 
which  lines  the  larvnx  is  reflected  over  these  liga- 
ments, so  as  to  be  drawn  by  them  in  their  motions ; 
and  this  action  is  referred  to  when  it  is  remarked  that 
the  organ  is  like  a  drum,  for  this  membrane  must 
vibrate  in  the  air.  The  muscles  of  the  arytenoid  car- 
tilages draw  tight  the  cordse  vocales  and  their  at- 
tached membranes,  and  thereby  give  them  a  certain 
tension.  The  air  being  at  tlie  same  time  expelled 
forcibly  from  the  chest,  a  vibration  of  these  ligaments 
and  membranes  is  the  result ;  and  sound  is  produced 
by  the  vibration  being  communicated  to  the  stream 
of  air.  This  sound,  as  it  is  above  stated,  may  re- 
verberate along  all  the  passages  from  the  lungs  to  the 


80  HUMAN  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


nostrils  ;  but,  unless  tliere  be  a  certain  vibration  in  the 
cords  of  the  larynx,  there  is  no  vocalization  of  tlie 
breath.  For  example,  a  man  in  whispering  articu- 
lates the  sounds  of  the  mere  breath,  Without  that 
breath  being  vocalized  and  made  audible  by  the  vi- 
brations of  the  larynx.  In  singing,  the  vocalized 
breath  is  given  out  uninterruptedly  through  the  pas- 
sages— the  rising  notes  in  the  gamut  being  produced, 
first,  by  the  narrowing  of  the  glottis,  and,  secondly, 
by  the  rising  of  the  larynx  upward.  These  various 
movements  with  the  muscles,  tongue,  and  lips — modu- 
lating the  vocalized  breath,  and  modified  by  iT.ason 
—  express  alike  conventional  language  and  harmo- 
nious strains. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  RESPIRATION  VITAL  FUNCTIONe. 

Cliemical  changes  tliat  take  place  in  tlie  air  we  breathe — Vital 
Force  an  independent  power  in  the  animal  system. 

THE  air  we  breathe — atmosplieric  air — consists  of 
tweuty-one  per  cent  of  oxygen  and  seventy-nine 
of  nitrogen,  with  a  mere  trace  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
When  it  has  acted  upon  the  lungs  whicli  contain 
the  blood  that  needs  to  be  purified,  and  is  returned, 
it  is  then  found  that  a  portion  of  the  oxygen  has  dis- 
appeared, and  the  place  has  been  nearly,  if  not  wdiolly, 
supplied  by  an  addition  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  to- 
gether with  a  quantity  of  watery  vapor,  and  that  a 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  RESPIRATION. 


81 


small  portion  of  the  nitrogen  gas  has  also  been  con- 
sumed. The  action  of  the  air  produces  a  most  obvious 
effect  upon  the  blood,  as  it  changes  its  color  from  a 
dark  purple  to  that  of  a  bright  vermilion.  It  is 
transformed  from  venous  to  arterial  blood,  a  change 
which  accounts  for  the  alteration  that  takes  place  in 
the  component  parts  of  the  air  inhaled.  This  process 
of  aeration  of  the  blood  has  much  to  do  with  the  pre- 
paration of  sustenance  and  heat  for  the  animal  body ; 
and  thus  it  has  been  established  by  our  most  eminent 
chemists  that  oxygen  is  essential  to- animal  life.  It  is  a 
supporter  of  combustion.  The  food  we  eat,  and  the 
fuel  we  burn,  are  materials  composed  of  the  same 
elements;  and  when  oxygen  urites  w^ith  those  sub- 
stances, it  eliminates  heat.  In  like  manner,  when  it 
unites  with  the  carbon  in  the  limgs,  it  forms  carbonic 
acid  which  is  thrown  off  in  the  breath. 

Oxygen  is  a  colorless  gas,  inodorous  and  tasteless, 
and  is  in  combination  with  nearly  all  of  the  sixty-four 
known  elemental  substances,  which  give  it  out  and 
receive  it  under  certain  circumstances  ;  hence,  its  com- 
bination, and  disposition  to  combine  with  the  food  we 
eat  and  the  fuel  we  burn.  It  is  also  the  most  abund- 
ant element  that  we  know  of,  constituting  ei']!;ht  ninths 
of  water,  twenty-one  per  cent  of  atmosplieric  air, 
forty-eight  per  cent  of  granite  and  limestone,  forty- 
seven  of  gneiss  and  sandstone,  forty-six  of  slate,  and 
forty-three  of  basalt — these  being  the  most  abundant 
materials  that  make  up  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

Carbon  is  found  in  a  solid  state,  in  which  it  is 
known  as  diamond,  and  we  find  it  nearly  pure  in  the 
form  of  charcoal.    It  is  united  with  all  organic  sub- 


82 


HUMAIS"  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


stances,  and  is  produced  from  tliem  by  decomposition 
in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and,  as  previously 
stated,  in  the  organized  substances  which  form 
the  food  of  animals;  and  we  repeat  this  important 
fact,  in  order  that  the  reader  may  the  more  readily 
comprehend  the  source  from  whence  we  obtain  the 
heat  that  is  eliminated  in  our  bodies,  and  the  chemi- 
cal relation  of  combustion  and  respiration,  which  are 
the  same  in  effect.  The  materials  in  both  cases  are 
burnt  up,  and  the  result  is  carbonic  acid,  water,  and 
heat,  which  are  produced  in  the  lungs  and  body  by 
slow,  silent  combustion. 

Vital  force  is  an  independent  power  in  the  living 
animal  body ;  and  it  is  under  this  influence  that  all 
parts  of  the  body  are  produced  from  a  peculiar  fluid, 
which  circulates  in  its  organism  by  virtue  of  an  influ- 
ence that  resides  in  every  part  of  an  organ.  All  parts 
of  the  system  are  made  to  grow,  and  are  sustained  by 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  aliment  it  con- 
tains. It  is  shown  by  experienced  physiologists  that, 
at  each  moment  of  life  in  the  animal  organism,  a 
change  of  matter,  more  or  less  accelerated,  is  going 
on.  A  part  of  the  structure  is  ti'ansformed  into  or- 
dinary matter,  and  loses  its  condition  of  life ;  it  is  re- 
moved, and  must  be  replaced  with  vitalized  organic 
matter.  Every  motion  and  every  manifestation  of 
force  is  the  result  of  a  transformation  of  the  structure, 
or  of  its  substance.  Every  conception,  every  mental 
affection,  is  followed'  by  changes  in  the  chemical  na- 
ture of  the  secreted  fiuids.  Even  every  thought  and 
every  sensation  is  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the 
composition  of  the  brain. 


PART  III. 

J^UTRITION  ^jl^LIMATE  ^^ANITARY  JilDS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  NUTRITION  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE 

ATMOSPHERE. 

Nutrition  essential  to  tlie  sustenance  of  animal  life — Its  dependence 
on  cliemical  changes — Different  conditions  of  tlie  atmospliere  in 
relation  to  tlio  requirements  of  the  animal  system — Animal  tem- 
perature and  its  maintenance  under  varied  circumstances. 

TO  sustain  animal  life,  we  must  supply  matter 
suited  for  tlie  sustenance  of  the  various  organs. 
The  first  condition  of  life  is  assimilation  of  what  is 
known  as  nourishment ;  and  the  second  is  a  continual 
absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  to  accom- 
plish that  necessity ;  so  that  at  every  moment  of  our 
lives  we  are  taking  in  oxygen  by  means  of  the  organs 
of  respiration,  and  giving  it  out  again  in  the  form  of 
carbonic  acid  and  hydrogen.  Thus  certain  parts  of 
the  body  enter  into  combination  with  oxygen,  wliich 
is  introduced  through  the  luiigs  and  skin,  and  given 
out  in  the  form  just  stated.  That  most  exact  and 
learned  chemist,  Justus  Liebig,  who  lias  been  relied 
upon  for  most  of  the  statements  in  relation  to  animal 
chemistry  which  have  been  made  in  this  work,  states 
that,  by  accurate  determination,  it  appears  that  an 
adult,  taking  moderate  exercise,  consumes  thirteen  and 
nine  tenths  ounces  daily  of  the  quantity  of  carl)on 


86  NUTRITION"  CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


taken  into  the  system  in  food,  and  that  a  portion  passes 
otf  in  the  form  of  excrement — in  which  form  carbon 
is  not  combined  with  oxygen.  This  amount  of  carbon 
escapes  through  the  skin  and  lungs  as  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  requires  thirty-seven  ounces  of  oxygen  for 
its  conversion  into  that  gas.  As  no  part  of  the  oxygen 
taken  into  the  system  is  given  off  in  any  other  form 
— and  as  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  expended  are,  in 
a  normal  condition  of  health,  replaced  by  carbon  and 
hydrogen  supplied  in  the  food — it  is  clear  that  the 
amount  of  nourishment  required  by  the  animal  body 
for  its  support  must  be  in  direct  ratio  to  the  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  taken  into  the  system.  Hence,  quick 
breathing  most  rapidly  consumes  carbon,  or,  in  other 
words,  nutriment  containing  carbon,  as  is  instanced  in 
hard  labor,  or  in  a  child,  whose  organs  of  respiration 
are  naturally  in  a  state  of  great  activity.  A  child, 
therefore,  requires  food  oftener,  and  in  greater  pro- 
portion, according  to  its  size,  than  an  adult ;  and  this 
extra  supply  is  necessary  in  order  to  maintain  good 
health,  for  a  child  bears  hunger  less  easily  than  an  adult. 
This  is  an  important  fact,  and  should  be  remembered. 
Again,  an  excess  of  food  is  incompatible  with  a  de- 
ficiency of  active  breathing,  or  of  effort  to  produce  it 
by  proper  exercise.  Therefore,  persons  who  take  but 
moderate  exercise  should  limit  the  quantity  of  food  to 
their  condition  or  situation. 

Another  fact  to  be  impressed  upon  the  mind  is,  that 
there  are  different  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  which 
are  affected  by  temperature  and  density.  Atmos- 
pheric air  is  expanded  by  heat  and  contracted  by 
cold,  but  equal  volumes  of  cold  and  hot  air  contain 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


87 


unequal  weights  of  oxygen.  A  given  quantity  of 
atmospheric  air  contains  more  oxygen  in  winter  than 
in  summer;  so,  at  the  poles,  the  air  contains  more 
oxygen  than  at  the  equator ;  yet  at  both  we  inspire 
an  equal  quantity  of  air.  Cold  air  becomes  warmer 
during  respiration  in  the  air  passages  and  pulmonary 
cells,  where  it  acquires  the  temperature  of  the  body  ; 
and  it  requires  a  greater  amount  of  carbon  or  nourish- 
ment to  make  up  the  amount  of  heat  expended  in 
warming  it.  Hence,  a  person  at  rest  in  a  cold  cli- 
mate requires  an  increase  of  food  to  sustain  tlie 
activity  that  is  going  on  in  the  system,  and  such 
food  as  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  carbon. 

Fruits,  upon  which  the  inhabitants  of  warm  cli- 
mates mostly  live,  contain  about  twelve  per  cent  of 
carbon,  whilst  the  bacon  and  train-oil  eaten  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  frigid  zones  contain  from  sixty  to 
eighty  per  cent  of  carbon,  which  amount  is  essential  to 
their  existence.  A  person  would  die  from  hunger  in 
a  much  shorter  time  in  a  cold  climate  than  in  a  warm 
one.  Fruit  would  not  sustain  life  in  a  northern  lati- 
tud  e,  because  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it  could  not  be 
taken  into  the  human  stomach  to  supply  the  demand 
for  carbon.  From  this  we  may  learn  that  all  animal 
creation  is  dependent  upon  oxygen  for  existence,  and 
that,  if  the  proper  food  can  be  obtained,  we  possess 
within  ourselves  a  source  of  heat  independent  of  sur- 
rounding circumstances. 

In  whatever  way  carbon  may  combine  with  oxygen, 
the  act  of  combination  can  not  take  place  without  the 
disengagement  of  heat.  It  matters  not  whether  the 
combination  takes  place  rapidly  or  slowly — at  a  high 


88  KUTRITION  CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


or  a  low  temperature.  Tlie  amonnt  of  heat  liberated 
is  a  constant  quantity,  and  increases  or  diminishes 
with  the  quantity  of  oxygen  introduced  by  respira- 
tion. And  one  remarkable  fact  is  worthy  of  notice  : 
the  temperature  of  the  body  of  man,  and  of  every 
warm-blooded  animal,  in  a  healthy  condition,  is  the 
same,  whether  situated  in  a  climate  of  high  or  low 
temperature.  In  a  cold  climate,  however,  the  rapid 
disengagement  of  heat  requires  more,  food  than  a 
warm  one,  or  an  equivalent,  either  in  clothing  or 
heated  rooms,  which  will  diminish  the  urgent  demand 
for  such  food,  and  will  lessen  the  activity  of  the  vital 
forces  in  the  manner  experienced  in  a  warm  climate. 

A  person  from  a  cold  climate,  visiting  a  warm  one, 
finds  liis  appetite  diminished,  and  may  attempt  to  im- 
prove it  by  taking  stimulants  containing  carbon,  as  all 
alcoholic  drinks  do.  The  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  so  high  that  he  is  disinclined  to  take  exercise 
in  order  to.  increase  respiration,  consequently  the 
whole  amount  of  carbon  is  not  consumed,  and  disease 
ensues,  most  commonly  from  an  accumulation  of  bile. 
An  explanation  of  this  will  be  given  in  a  future 
chapter. 


CHAPTEE  II. 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE  ON  THE  SICK,  AND  THE  BENEFFIS 
DERIVED  FKOM  VEGETABLE  DIET. 

Climatic  influence  on  Invalids — Citizens  benefited  by  going  to  the 
country  in  the  warm  season,  and  by  strict  ^idherence  to  a  vegeta- 
ble diet — Pernicious  qualities  of  stale  fruit  and  vegetables. 

AFA  VOR  ABLE  result  is  usually  obtained  by  send- 
ing the  sick,  especially  those  laboring  under  dis- 
eased lungs,  to  a  southern  clime.  The  lungs,  being  in.  a 
measure  disorganized,  fail  to  obtain  in  a  cold  climate 
sufficient  oxygen  to  consume  all  the  carbon  produced 
from  the  food  taken.  In  a  warm  climate,  liowever, 
the  diseased  organs  have  sufficient  power  to  place  the 
diminished  amount  of  food  which  is  there  taken  in 
equilibrium  with  the  inspired  oxygen ;  whilst  in  a 
colder  zone  the  organs  of  respiration  themselves 
would  have  been  consumed  in  furnishing  the  neces- 
sary resistance  to  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  oxy- 
gen. Thus  it  is,  that  pulmonary  and  inflammatory 
diseases  are  those  which  arise  from  an  excess  of  oxy- 
gen, and  are  most  frequent  in  a  northern  region. 
On  the  contrary,  bilious  or  liver  diseases  are  most 
prevalent  in  w^arm  climates,  as  they  arise  from  an  ex- 
cess of  carbon — bile  consisting  chiefly  of  soda  and 
carbonaceous  matter.  This  applies  to  all  warm  and 
confined  locations,  crowded  cities,  etc.    And  thus  it 


90  NUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


is  that  people  are  benefited  by  leaving  them  in  warm 
weather,  and  resorting  to  the  sea-shore  or  open  conntry, 
where  sufficient  oxygen  can  be  obtained  to  consume 
the  excess  of  carbon ;  but  which,  however,  can  only 
be  fully  accomplished  by  a  strict  adherence  to  a  vege- 
table diet. 

Such  a  change  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 
improvement  of  our  health,  especially  the  health  of 
our  children,  as  it  is  only  in  the  country  that  ripe 
fruit  can  be  obtained,  uncontaminated  and  free  from 
the  putrid  vapors  whicli  arise  from  the  decomposing 
masses  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter  in  our  sliops 
and  markets,  and  which  poisonous  vapors  are  so 
readily  absorbed  by  fruit.  A  few  hours'  exposure 
thereto  is  sufficient  to  injure  the  wholesome  qualities 
of  fruit  or  vegetables,  and  forty-eight  hours  suffice  to 
make  them  deleterious.  The  fruit  sold  in  large  cities 
is  often  rendered  really  pernicious  by  venders  mixing 
that  which  they  have  purchased  on  the  previous  day 
with  their  new  supply,  so  that  they  can  pass  it  off  for 
fresh.  There  are  honorable  exceptions,  of  course  ;  but 
it  is  requisite  that  purchasers  should  be  on  their  guard 
as  much  as  possible.  The  same  may  be  said  of  vege- 
tables as  of  fruit.  Vegetables,  too,  are  frequently 
received  in  large  quantities  or  bulk  from  great  dis- 
tances, and  decomposition  has  taken  place  while  in 
transit ;  and  they  are  then  kept  in  boxes  and  barrels 
for  a  day  or  two  before  they  are  sold,  increasing  in  in- 
juriousness  with  every  day's  delay.  It  is  thus  that  we 
are  deprived  of  the  advantages  obtainable  from  the 
very  means  provided  by  a  bountiful  Providence  for 
the  benefit  of  our  health  in  the  summer  season. 


BENEFITS  DERIVED  FROM  VEGETABLE  DIET. 


91 


During  the  winter  months  we  indulge  in  carbona- 
ceous food,  as  we  have  a  sufficiency  of  oxygen  to  con- 
sume it.  In  the  spring  season,  our  system  has  accu- 
mulated an  excess  of  carbonaceous  matter,  wliicli 
predisposes  us  to  disease ;  but  in  ordinary  good  health 
we  possess  within  us  means  of  resistance — a  power 
of  adaptation  to  circumstances  which  saves  us  from 
an  immediate  attack  of  sickness,  that  eventually 
must  ensue,  if  not  contended  witli.  AVe  can  readily 
be  restored  to  a  state  of  equilibrium,  if  we  are  not 
deprived  of  the  means  provided-^fresh  fruits  and 
fresh  vegetables — for  our  principal  diet  during  warm 
weather. 

So  far,  w^e  have  been  considering  the  chemical 
action  upon  the  blood  which  takes  place  in  the  lungs, 
and  prepares  it  to  supply  nutriment  to  the  general 
organization.  It  is  here  tliat  the  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter is  separated  from  the  blood,  and  that  which  has 
been  thrown  off  from  the  several  organs,  by  change 
of  particles,  is  rendered  useful,  for  it  is  consumed  in 
the  lungs,  and  thus  eliminates  heat  sufficient  to  main- 
tain the  natural  warmth  of  the  body,  and  to  preseive 
an  equilibrium  conducive  to  good  health. 


CHAPTEE  III. 


THE  FORMATION  OF  LIVING  ANIMAL  MATTER  THE 

NECESSARY  FOOD  FOR  THE  YOUNG. 

The  component  parts  of  blood  as  derived  from  food — Carnivorous 
and  graminivorous  animals  considered  in  relation  to  food — The 
young  obtain  from  milk  all  that  is  essential  to  growth  and  vigor. 

E  will  now  take  into  consideration  the  several 
component  parts  of  vitc^lized  blood,  prepared 
to  make  up  tlie  living  organism  of  the  body — namely, 
the  nerves,  muscles,  and  bones,  the  elements  of  which 
are  contained  in  the  blood,  and  have  been  derived 
from  food.  By  the  examination  of  the  blood,  chem- 
ists are  enabled  to  inform  us  what  food  contains  the 
greatest  amount  of  nutriment  or  animal  matter  ;  for, 
by  a  very  simple  process,  some  of  the  component  parts 
of  blood  are  detected,  or  can  be  separated. 

Blood,  taken  from  a  vein,  if  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time,  coagulates  and  separates,  when  a  yellow- 
ish liquid  called  serum  arises  to  the  surface,  and  a 
gelatinous  mass  is  formed,  out  of  which  soft,  elastic 
fibres,  called  the  fihrin  of  the  blood,  can  be  drawn 
by  a  stick,  to  which  they  will  adhere,  if  it  is  passed 
several  times  through  the  mass.  This  is  identical 

in  all  its  properties  with  muscular  fibre — it  is,  in  fact, 
muscle,  ready  to  be  deposited  and  formed  into  shape. 
The  remaining  portion  of  the  blood,  serum^  contains 


FORMATION  OF  LIVING  ANIMAL  MATTER  93 


all  the  properties  of  the  white  of  eggs,  and,  when 
heated,  coagulates  and  is  converted  into  a  white  elas- 
tic mass  called  albumen. 

Blood  contains  seven  chemical  elements,  among 
which  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur;  as 
also,  lime  to  form  the  bones,  iron,  the  coloring  mat- 
ter of  blood,  several  combinations  of  soda  and  potash, 
and  carbonic,  phosphoric,  and  sulphuric  acids.  The 
two  most  important  parts  of  the  blood  which  invite 
our  attention  are  albumen  and  fibrin.  The  vital 
forces  or  living  principle  can  change  one  into  the 
other,  and  convert  either  of  them  into  blood.  Both 
contain  nitrogen.  All  portions  of  the  animal  body 
that  have  a  decided  shape  contain  about  seventeen 
per  centum  of  nitrogen  ;  and  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen  are  also  present.  The  two  latter  are  sepa- 
rate, and  not  in  proportion  to  form  water. 

All  kinds  of  food  proper  for  nourishment  must  con- 
tain nitrogen,  for  the  organs  can  not  create  it,  nor  is 
it  absorbed  from  the  atmosphere  in  tlie  lungs.  Water 
and  fat  are  devoid  of  nitrogen.  The  inorganic  con- 
stituents of  the  body  are  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  com- 
mon salt,  potash,  and  soda. 

We  have  thus  far  described  the  most  important 
constituents  that  form  the  living  body,  and  will  now 
take  a  comparative  view  of  some  of  the  changes  which 
occur  in  organized  matter  taken  as  food  by  carnivo- 
rous and  graminivorous  animals,  in  order  to  ascertain 
what  constitutes  the  nutriment  of  the  food  of  man. 
The  food  which  carnivorous  annuals  take  for  nourish- 
ment is  identical  with  those  parts  of  their  own  organiz- 
ation which  are  to  be  renewed.   It  consists  of  the  blood 


94 


NUTEITION  CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


andflesli  of  tlie  graininiv^orous,  but  not  of  lioofs,  hair, 
feathers,  and  bones,  and  is  as  readily  assimilated  as 
it  is  in  man.  This  food,  being  decomposed,  affords 
all  that  is  necessary  to  snstain  the  system.  The  pro- 
cess of  nutrition  in  graminivorous  animals  appears 
quite  complicated.  Their  digestive  organs  are  less 
simple  than  those  of  the  carnivorous  ;  but  this  ap- 
pears.  necessary ,  when  we  take  into  consideration  the 
fact  that,  in  order  to  give  the  amount  of  nutriment 
necessary  to  sustain  the  system,  vegetables  must  be 
eaten  in  much  larger  quantities  than  animal  food. 
Of  vegetable  food,  seeds  of  the  different  kinds  of  grain, 
and  roots  and  juices  give  the  largest  amount  of  nutri- 
ment in  proportion  to  the  bulk  eaten.  The  nitro- 
genized  forms  of  nutriment  in  vegetables  are  reduced 
to  three  substances,  two  of  whicli  are  soluble  in  water 
and  one  is  insoluble.  These  can  be  distinguished  in 
the  following  manner  : 

In  nearly  all  vegetable  juices,  a  separation  takes 
place  if  they  are  allowed  to  stand  for  some  timCo  A 
gelatinous  precipitate,  commonly  of  a  greenish  tinge, 
is  deposited  ;  and  when  this  deposit  is  acted  upon  by 
liquids  which  remove  the  coloring  matter,  the  residuum 
is  of  a  grayish  white  substance.  This  is  one  of  the 
nitrogenized  compounds  of  vegetable  nutrition,  and  it 
is  known  as  vegetable  fibrin.  The  juice  of  grapes  is 
especially  rich  in  this  constituent,  but  it  is  most  abund- 
ant in  wheat  and  other  cereals.  It  may  be  obtained 
tolerably  pure  from  wheat  flour,  by  a  mechanical  oper- 
ation of  washing  out  the  starch,  and  is  then  called 
gluten;  but  the  glutinous  property  does  not  belong 
to  vegetable  fibrin,  but  to  another  substance  found 


FORMATION  OF  LIVING  ANIMAL  MATTER.  95 


only  in  wlieat.  Yegetable  fibrin  ia  identical  with 
that  found  in  the  blood. 

The  second  nitrogenized  compound  remains  dis- 
solved in  the  juice  after  the  separation  of  the  fibrin, 
and  can  be  coagulated  by  boiling.  "When  the  clarified 
juice  of  vegetables — such  as  cauliflower,  asparagus, 
and  turnips — is  boiled,  a  coagulum  is  formed  like  that 
from  the  resume  of  the  blood  or  white  of  eggs.  This 
is  known  as  vegetctble  albumen^  and  is  found  most 
abundant  in  oily  seeds  and  nuts. 

The  third  nitrogenized  constituent  of  vegetable  food 
is  especially  interesting.  It  is  chiefly  found  in  peas 
and  beans,  and  in  leguminous  seeds  generally.  It  is 
termed  vegetable  casein^  and,  like  vegetable  albumen, 
it  is  soluble  in  water,  but  it  can  not  be  coagulated  by 
heat.  When  the  solution  is  heated,  a  skin  forms  on 
its  surface,  and  the  addition  of  an  acid  causes  a  co- 
agulum, the  same  as  when  it  is  added  to  animal  milk. 

These  three  nitrogenized  compounds  —  vegetable 
fibrin^  albumen^  and  casein — are  the  true  nitro- 
genized constituents  of  the  food  of  graminivorous 
animals,  and  contribute  largely  to  the  increase  of 
mass  in  the  animal  body.  Thus  it  seems  that  vege- 
tables obtain  from  inorganic  matter  elements  to  form 
organic  substances  for  the  food  of  graminivorous  ani- 
mals. And  these  animals,  in  turn,  form  food  for  the 
carnivorous,  or  animals  that  can  only  subsist  on  ani- 
malized  matter,  which  is  first  obtained  fi'om  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  Therefore,  animal  organism  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  vegetable  life.  The  first  substance  capable 
of  aff'ording  nutriment  to  animals  is  the  last  product 
of  the  creative  energy  of  vegetables.    There  are  sub* 


96  NUTRITION — CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


stances  in  tlie  animal  system,  sucli  as  sugar,  starch, 
gum,  pectine,  etc.,  wliicli  contain  no  nitrogen.  With- 
out these,  graminivorous  animals  can  not  subsist;  at 
least  one  or  more  of  those  compounds  is  necessary. 

Milk  is  the  nutriment  of  the  young,  both  of  grami- 
nivora  and  carnivora.  It  contains  casein — a  nitro- 
genized  compound,  which  supplies  not  only  nitrogen, 
but  the  chief  constituents  of  blood  and  the  earth  of 
bones,  in  a  very  soluble  form,  capable  of  reaching 
every  part  of  the  body — as  well  as  sugar,  butter, 
starch,  and  gum,  each  of  which  substances  contains 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  in  almost  exact  proportion  to 
form  water,  into  which  they  are  readily  changed. 
Heat  is  also  eliminated  from  milk,  and  the  organs 
are  thus  saved  from  being  consumed  by  oxygen  in 
breathing,  for  the  demand  for  carbon  must  be  supplied, 
as  the  want  of  it  causes  death  by  starvation.  If  car- 
bon is  not  supplied  to  the  lungs  from  food  or  carbo- 
naceous compounds  in  the  system,  other  than  what  are 
in  combination  with  fibrin  and  albumen,  the  substance 
of  the  muscles  will  be  consumed  at  the  expense  of  the 
substance  of  the  system — that  is,  after  any  accumu- 
lated fat,  that  may  have  been  deposited,  and  which 
may  be  considered  a  reserve  of  carbon,  has  been  ex- 
pended. In  the  change  of  matter  which  takes  place 
in  the  system,  the  liberated  nitrogen  unites  with 
hydrogen  and  forms  ammonia,  (commonly  called 
hartshorn,)  which  passes  off  in  the  secretions  and  ex- 
crements. 

We  learn  from  the  above  that  graminivorous  ani- 
mals do  not  obtain  from  the  returned  particles  of 
organs,  sufficient  carbon  for  the  action  of  the  lungs,  and 


THE  GENERAL  FOOD  OF  MAN. 


that  their  equilibrium  woiild  be  destroyed  if  it  were 
not  for  the  sugar,  gum,  starch,  and  pectin e  that  make 
up  the  deficiency  ;  all  of  which  products  are  readily 
obtained  from  vegetables.  The  carniv;^ra  obtain  an 
excess  of  carbon  in  their  food,  and  do  not  require  to 
procure  it  from  other  substances.  Bile,  composed  of 
carbonaceous  matter  and  several  salts  separated  from 
the  blood  in  the  liver,  is  again  returned  to  the  circu- 
lation, and,  if  not  in  undue  quantity,  is  essential  to 
a  healthy  condition  of  the  system.  It  must  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  secretions  that  contribute  to 
the  formation  of  animalized  products,  like  to  tlie  car- 
bon given  ofl'  in  combination  with  oxygen  in  tjie  form 
of  carbonic  acid,  except  that  the  salts  contained  in  the 
bile  are  appropriated  to  their  required  use  in  the 
animal  economy. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

THE  GENERAL  FOOD  OF  MAN. 

An  examination  of  tlie  general  food  of  man — Fibrin  and  Alba- 
men  are  products  taken  up  by  the  blood,  whether  from  vege 
table  or  animal  food — Mixed  food  most  suitable  for  man — Car 
bonaceous  food  predisposes  to  fat  and  bile. 

MAN  partakes  of  both  vegetable  and  animal 
food.  The  compounds  obtained  from  vege- 
table food  are  similar,  whether  eaten  by  man  or  the 
herbivorous  animals — namely,  fibrin  and  albumen, 
which  are  nitrogenized  compounds  containing  car- 


98 


NUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


bon  in  an  animalized  form.  Fibrin  and  albumen  are 
products  ready  to  be  taken  up  by  the  blood  for  distri- 
bution to  all  parts  of  the  system,  and  are  identical 
with  what  is  obtained  from  animal  food ;  but  a  very 
large  amount  of  vegetables  must  be  eaten  to  obtain 
a  small  quantity  thereof;  and,  consequently,  a  greater 
activity  of  the  digestive  powers  is  required  than 
would  be  demanded  by  the  amount  of  animal  food 
that  would  produce  the  same  result.  This  activity  calls 
for  an  expenditure  of  carbon  commensurate  with  the 
activity.  If  the  digestive  organs  are  not  very  vigor- 
ous, a  deficiency  of  this  element  must  be  the  result ; 
but  if  there  is  fat  in  the  system,  carbon  will  be  sup- 
plied from  that  source.  Hence  fat,  it  would  appear, 
is  deposited  to  meet  such  an  emergency.  This  fat  is 
very  similar  to  some  of  the  component  parts  of  casein, 
which  contains  fibrin  and  albumen  in  a  soluble 
state,  as  well  as  butter,  sugar,  gum,  etc.  The  three 
latter  substances  are  formed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
in  varied  proportions,  but  are  readily  resolved  into 
each  otlier.  Starch  is  also  changed  into  sugar,  and 
any  of  these  vegetable  products  is  easily  converted 
into  fat,  which,  when  decomposed,  gives  off  hydrogen. 
Hydrogen  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  water,  and  with 
nitrogen  to  form  ammonia.  The  residue  of  carbon 
supplies  respiration  and  adds  to  the  formation  of  fat. 

In  an  infant  there  is  not  sucli  a  rapid  change  of 
particles  of  the  organized  system  as  in  an  adult; 
consequently,  there  is  not  so  much  carbon  obtained 
from  that  source;  but  in  the  former  there  is  an  actual 
increase  of  size,  which  continues  until  it  reaches  ma- 
turity.   The  deficiency  of  carbon  is  supplied  from  the 


THE  GENERAL  FOOD  OF  MAN. 


99 


non-nitrogonized  substances  found  in  the  casein — ■ 
namely,  butter,  sugar,  and  gum — while  the  soluble 
nitrogenized  substances — fibrin  and  albumen — are 
distributed  for  the .  sustenance  and  increase  of  the 
growth  of  the  child. 

In  a  man  compelled  to  live  on  animal  food  the  car- 
bon would  be  furnished  by  the  flesh,  instead  of  by 
the  butter,  sugar,  starch,  and  gum  afforded  him  in  a 
vegetable  diet ;  and  would  require,  comparatively 
speaking,  a  very  large  amount  of  flesh.  An  import- 
ant fact  to  be  considered  here,  is,  that  flesh  is  not  de- 
composed merely  for  the  purpose  of  yielding  carbon, 
like  butter,  sugar,  starch,  and  gum,  but  it  forms  or- 
ganiz'ed  matter  containing  all  the  properties  of  blood. 
It  is  distributed  to  the  general  organization,  and  has 
to  undergo  the  changes  of  all  vitalized  matter,  which 
is  thrown  off  after  it  has  accomplished  what  it  was 
designed  for — the  sustenance  of  the  organization— 
and  is  replaced  by  other  vitalized  matter  before  it 
can  supply  carbon  for  respiration.  To  accomplish 
this,  muscular  motion  is  required  to  create  activity  in 
the  system.  Carnivorous  animals  are  compelled  to 
take  exercise,  probably  by  instinct,  in  order  to  be  saved 
from  disease.  Witness  the  lion,  tiger,  and  hyena, 
when  confined  in  cages  ;  they  are  in  constant  motion. 
So  with  man  ;  if  he  lives  solely  on  flesh,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  him  to  take  exercise,  otherwise  he  becomes 
diseased. 

It  is  then  apparent  that  a  mixed  diet,  with  proper 
discretion,  is  most  conducive  to  good  health ;  and 
that,  if  varied  judiciously,  it  will  cure  most  of  our 
ailments.    If  we  eat  to  excess  butter,  sugar,  or  vege- 


100  NUTRITIOlSr  CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


tables  containing  much  starch,  without  inducing  rapid 
breathing  to  get  rid  of  a  superfluity  of  carbon,  bile 
or  fat  will  accumulate — probably  both.  This  is  very 
injurious,  as  such  accumulation  produces  some  of  the 
most  formidable  diseases  that  the  physician  has  to  con- 
tend w^th,  one  of  which  is  diabetes.  Sugar  can  be 
formed  in  the  system  from  all  fariixaceous  food  eaten  ; 
and  wdien  the  disposition  to  form  it  is  once  established, 
it  is  not  easily  changed,  although  an  animal  diet  may 
be  strictly  adhered  to.  The  carbon  liberated  from 
animal  food  unites  readily  with  the  free  hydrogen, 
and  sugar  is  thereby  formed;  while  the  nitrogen 
unites  w^ith  hydrogen  and  produces  ammonia,  which 
passes  off  in  the  form  of  ammoniacal  gas. 

In  the  graminivora  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  de- 
position of  adipose  matter.  When  it  is  desired  to 
fatten  an  ox,  hog,  or  any  of  the  domestic  animals, 
they  should  be  confined  in  a  warm  stall,  so  that  the 
expanded  bulk  of  air  to  be  breathed  may  not  contain 
so  much  oxygen  as  it  otherwise  would.  When  thus 
confined,  their  activity  in  breathing  is  lessened,  and 
the  animals  will  consume  more  nitrogenized  com- 
pounds, in  the  form  of  fibrin  and  albumen,  tlian  is  re- 
quired for  the  reproduction  and  supply  of  carbon  to 
the  lungs.  In  addition  to  this,  they  will  eat  a  large 
quantity  of  substances  that  are  devoid  of  nitrogen, 
such  as  starch,  sugar,  and  gum,  which  yield  carbon 
readily,  and  are  not  required  for  respiration  and  heat. 
Warm  apartments  and  want  of  exercise  are  equiva- 
lent to  a  deficiency  of  oxygen.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  animals  absorb  much  less  oxygen  than  is 
required  to  convert  the  carbon  of  the  substances^ 


THE  GENERAL  FOOD  OF  MAN. 


101 


usually,  or  under  ordinary  circumstances,  destined 
for  respiration,  into  carbonic  acid  ;  and  a  compara- 
tively small  portion  is  thrown  off  in  excrementitious 
matter.  The  remainder  is  reunited  with  hydrogen  to 
form  fat,  which,  in  the  normal  state,  only  appears  in 
small  quantity  as  a  constituent  of  the  nerves  and 
brain. 

A  hog  fed  on  liighly  nitrogenized  food  increases  in 
mnscle  or  flesh  ;  when  fed  on  potatoes,  in  consequence 
of  the  quantity  of  starch  they  contain,  it  gets  very 
fat,  with  little  increase  of  flesh.  The  milk  of  the 
cow,  when  stall  fed,  is  rich  in  butter  ;  but  when  the 
cow  is  turned  out  to  pasture,  her  milk  contains  more 
casein,  and  in  the  same  proportion,  less  butter  and 
sugar.  In  woman,  beer  and  farinaceous  diet  increase 
the  proportion  of  butter  and  fatten  the  child ;  but,  if 
she  partakes  of  animal  food,  though  she  yields  less 
milk  it  contains  more  casein,  and  the  child  becomes 
muscular  and  vigorous. 

This  is  the  experience  of  Liebig,  and  of  many  other 
eminent  chemists  who  have  tested  the  truth  of  his 
statements.  It  is  the  result  of  discoveries  made  in 
that  branch  of  the  science  of  chemistry  which  is 
applicable  to  physiology — made  with  all  the  zeal  and 
ambition  by  which  learned  men  have  been  led  to 
oppose  innovation  and  to  detect  error.  It  is  a  result 
which  has  enlightened  the  world  with  flicts  in  phj^si- 
ology — facts  that  are  made  comprehensible  by  their 
agreement  with  the  well  known  laws  that  govern 
chemical  combination,  and  the  knowledge  of  which  is 
made  subservient  to  vital  force  in  the  formation  of  or- 
ganized tissues  and  the  performance  of  their  functions. 


CHAPTER  Y. 


THE    VARIOUS    TISSUES    THAT    CONSTITUTE    THE  HUMAN 
BODY  YITAL  FORCE  OR  LIVING  POWER. 

Bicliat's  enumeration  of  the  various  tissues  that  constitute  the 
entire  form  of  man  —  Muscular  motion  dependent  upon  vital 
force — Means  of  expending  vital  force,  and  assimilating  it. 

WEBS,  or,  in  physiological  parlance,  tissues, 
indicate  the  several  peculiar  parts  of  organs 
which  form  the  animal  body.  Bichat  assigns  tlie 
term  to  all  the  solids  of  tlie  body,  and  makes  a  total 
of  twenty -one  tissues.    These  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Exhalent — numerous  small  vessels  throwing 
off  matter. 

2.  Absorbent — numerous  small  vessels  taking  up 
matter. 

3.  Cellular — the  receptacle  of  fat. 

4.  Arterial — blood-vessels  conveying  the  blood 
outward. 

5.  Yenous — blood-vessels  returning  the  blood. 

6.  Nervous — animal,  voluntary. 

7.  Nervous — animal,  involuntary. 

8.  Osseous — relating  to  the  bone. 

9.  Medullary— brain,  etc. 

10.  Cartilaginous — white  ends  of  bones. 


TISSUES  FORMING  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


103 


11.  Fibro-Cartilaginons— tendons. 

12.  Fibrous — muscular  fibrin. 

13.  Muscular — the  means  of  motion.  Flesh  cords 
that  contract  or  extend,  and  give  form  to  the  body. 

14.  Muscular  Organic — heart,  stomach,  etc. 

15.  Mucous — lining  membrane  of  nose,  throat,  etc. 

16.  Serous — secreting  membranes. 

17.  Synovial — secreting  membrane  about  joints. 

18.  Glandular — organs  forming  secretions. 


21.  Pileous — hair,  etc. 

The  various  organs  that  constitute  the  animal  econo- 
my perform  their  functions  from  the  foi'ce  of  a  pecu- 
liar power,  known  as  the  vital  force ;  which  force 
subjects  natural  laws  to  its  control,  and  diminishes  in 
power  in  direct  ratio  to  its  expenditure.  We  have 
already  stated  that  this  vital  force  or  living  prin- 
ciple is  as  incomprehensible  to  our  perception  as  the 
force  of  electricity  or  magnetism,  which,  under  certain 
circumstances,  produces  a  somewhat  similar  effect, 
especially  in  relation  to  motion  produced  in  the  ani- 
mal body.  We  can  only  perceive  the  effect  realized 
— action  and  motion. 

Action  of  the  mind  or  will  produces  voluntary  mo- 
tion. Involuntary  motion,  such  as  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  and  the  digestive  organs,  is  produced  inde- 
pendent of  the  will ;  but  for  power  of  motion  it  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  vital  force,  for  all  motion  of  the  ani- 
mal system,  is  dependent  upon  that  living  principle  and 
the  organism  upon  which  it  acts.     This  organism 


19.  Dermoid 

20.  Epidermoid 


to  the  skin. 


104  NUTRITION — CLIMATE —SANITAEY  AIDS. 


requires  a  constant  supply  of  sustenance — material 
that  is  acted  upon  to  produce  force,  which  is  exhaust- 
ible and  consequently  requires  renewing. 

A  man  exhausts  vital  force  by  mental  and  muscu- 
lar exertion.  When  walking,  his  erect  position  and 
action  of  lifting  the  legs  from  the  earth  are  opposed 
by  gravity  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  vital  force  hav- 
ing the  ascendency,  the  legs  are  lifted  alternately  from 
the  earth,  and  the  resistance  of  gravity  is  overcome 
for  a  time.  The  same  result  accompanies  all  exertion, 
just  so  long  as  a  sufficiency  of  vital  force  is  supplied ; 
and,  as  this  force  is  accumulated  in  the  animal  econ- 
omy, it  is  limited  in  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  ali- 
ment eaten  and  properly  digested ;  the  force,  in  fact, 
being  dependent  upon  the  change  of  matter  in  the  sys- 
tem, induced  by  motion  and  exertion.  Motion  and 
exertion  increase  the  ability  to  accumulate  power  to 
the  extent  of  the  animal  development.  As  exhaustion 
follows  exertion,  rest  is  necessary  to  the  accumulation 
of  vital  force  ;  and,  if  exertion  and  rest  are  both  w^ell 
regulated,  an  equilibrium  of  force  and  development 
is  established  and  made  manifest,  often  to  our  aston- 
ishment. Extraordinary  muscular  power  is  obtained 
/  under  favorable  circumstances  ;  which  favorable  cir- 
cumstances may  be  considered  as  the  partaking  of 
wholesome  food,  residence  in  a  congenial  climate,  well- 
regulated  habits  of  eating,  thorough  mastication  of 
the  food,  and  the  consumption  of  no  more  than  is 
required  to  sustain  the  muscular  force  to  be  exerted. 
The  benefit  of  such  precautionary  measures  is  indi- 
cated by  an  invigorated  disposition  in  twenty  minutes 
after  eating,  and  the  absence  of  that  drowsy  dullness 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


105 


which  follows  over-eating  and  invites  2i  siesta  or  sliort 
sleep.  The  latter  condition  induces  a  concentration 
of  vital  force  in  the  stomach,  so  that  it  may  digest 
the  excess  of  food,  which  is  done  at  the  expense  of 
the  general  system. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

INFLUENCES  OF  CLIMATE  AND  ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 

The  influence  of  climate  on  tlie  animal  system — Mean§  of  adapta- 
tion to  unfavorable  circumstances — The  electrical  condition  of  the 
atmosphere — A  sufficiency  of  electricity  an  excitant  to  man's 
energy,  and  the  reverse  when  there  is  a  deficiency— The  influ- 
ence of  a  deficiency  of  electricity  in  the  atmosphere. 

CLIMATE  exerts  a  powerful  influence  over  the 
animal  economy.  The  maintenance  of  good 
health  under  unfavorable  circumstances  requires,  as 
we  have  before  intimated,  the  exercise  of  good  judg- 
ment and  care.  In  a  cold,  condensed  atmosphere  we 
inhale  the  greatest  amount  of  oxygen.  This  calls  for 
an  increased  activity  in  the  change  of  matter  in  the 
system,  in  order  to  produce  a  sufficiency  of  heat ;  and, 
consequently,  an  increase  of  nutritious  food  and  warm 
clothing  is  required.  The  rule  applies  to  all  degrees 
of  temperature  to  which  man  may  be  subjected. 

In  whatever  place  man  may  reside,  the  atmosphere 
is  variable  in  temperature  and  quality,  being  cold  at 
one  time  and  moister  and  warmer  at  another,  and  his 
system  is  subject  to  its  influence.    In  chronic  diseases 


106  NUTRITION  CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


his  discomfiture  is  manifested  at  every  change  ;  and  a 
diseased  joint,  an  old  wound,  or  a  mutilated  limb  will 
indicate  change  in  the  weather  some  time  previous  to 
its  occurrence.  It  is  not  only  the  fact  that  a  morbid 
condition  of  the  system  renders  an  individual  so  sus- 
ceptible, but  it  is  equally  true  that  the  healthy  are 
also  subject  to  the  same  influences,  and  require  an  in- 
crease of  vital  force  to  resist  them  and  tlius  escape  the 
actual  injury  which  would  otherwise  ensue.  The  im- 
press is  clearly  perceptible  in  the  countenance,  and  is 
evinced  by  the  disposition  of  the  most  vigorous.  A 
depression  of  spirits  is  apparent  in  all  who  do  not  pos- 
sess sufficient  vital  power  to  repel  its  approach,  which 
depression  increases  in  degree  from  the  nervo-san- 
guineous  to  the  atrabilious  temperament ;  and  in  the 
latter  the  despondency  is  so  great  that  th.e  person  af- 
flicted labors  under  actual  melancholy,  and  is  often 
led  to  the  committal  of  suicide.  The  sombre  state  of, 
the  atmosphere  which  tends  to  so  sad  a  result  has 
been  not  inaptly  designated  ''suicidal  weather,"  from 
the  fact  that  it  has  been  noted  in  both  England  and 
France  that  a  greater  number  of  suicides  take  place 
in  the  month  of  November,  when  such  weather  pre- 
vails, than  in  any  other  throughout  the  year.  This 
peculiar  influence  of  the  atmosphere  was  noticed  by 
the  ancients,  but  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  explained.  It  can  not  be  owing  to 
the  sun  being  obscured  by  the  clouds  that  the  sad  ef- 
fect is  produced ;  for,  if  such  were  the  case,  a  percepti- 
ble change  wonld  be  observed  during  tlie  night,  espe- 
cially in  people  of  melanclioly  dispositions.    It  can. 


ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 


107 


therefore,  be  only  attributable  to  a  peculiar  condition 
:)f  the  atmosphere. 

That  the  electrical  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
tends  to  produce  a  very  decided  effect  is  quite  appa- 
rent. We  feel  it  in  tlie  depression  of  our  energies, 
and  we  observe  it  not  only  in  children  who  conse- 
quently become  irritable  and  indisposed  to  play,  but 
in  the  cattle  in  the  field  and  in  the  fowls  about  the 
barnyard  when  they  huddle  together  and  droop  their 
heads  with  drowsiness  ;  and  we  further  witness  it  in 
the  countenances  of  our  usually  gay  friends,  for  it 
causes  their  faces  to  assume  a  dull  aspect  which  is 
quite  at  variance  with  their  wonted  nature.  At  such 
times  the  electrical  machine  will  fail  to  produce  the 
usual  quantity  of  electricity — we  refer  to  the  electri- 
cal machine  which  collects  electricity  from  the  atmos- 
phere by  friction  upon  glass,  and  condenses  it  in  the 
metallic  insulated  conductor,  (a  means  of  obtaining 
atmospheric  electricity,)  the  efi'ects  of  which  upon 
the  animal  economy  are  quite  different  to  those  pro- 
duced by  magnetism,  electro-magnetism,  or  galvan- 
ism. The  three  latter  seem  to  be  aftbrded  from 
metal  directly,  and  are  increased  by  decomposition. 

It  is  the  experience  of  the  author  of  this  work  that 
atmospheric  electricity  is  decidedly  the  most  effectual 
in  its  curative  tendency  ;  that  it  gives  increased  tone 
to  the  nerves  when  applied  in  a  continuous  current, 
and  that  when  interrupted  it  produces  excitement. 
When  a  constitutionally  delicate  person  is  insulated  and 
charged  with  atmospheric  electricity,  if  that  electrici 
ty  is  drawn  off  by  metallic  points  for  ten  minutes, 
it  will,  in  some  instances,  produce  fainting;  and  the 


108  NUTRITION — CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


same  operation  will  produce  in  all  persons  a  depres- 
sion of  energy  and  a  tendency  to  relieve  local  conges- 
tion. As  it  is  necessary  that  the  modes  in  which  at- 
mospheric electricity  is  applied  must  be  varied  to  suit 
the  peculiar  constitution  of  the  patient  and  the  par- 
ticular nature  of  the  disease,  it  must  be  inferred  that, 
to  insure  safety  and  success,  experience  and  judgment 
must  be  exercised  in  the  application.  It  is  not  safe, 
then,  to  apply  it  without  the  advice  and  care  of  a  skill- 
ful physician  ;  but,  under  such  advice  and  care,  it  may 
be  employed  to  most  decided  advantage  in  such  cases 
as  the  removal  of  tumors,  the  restoration  of  suppressed 
secretions,  the  loss  of  power  —  as  in  paralysis  and  the 
consequent  deformity — and  in  rheumatic  and  neural- 
gic affections. 

The  changes  in  the  electrical  condition  of  the  at- 
mosphere just  previous  to  and  after  a  heavy  thunder- 
storm are  very  marked.  Before  the  storm  all  animal 
creation  seems  to  be  depressed,  and  persons  feel  very 
languid  from  tlie  oppressive  atmosphere  and  the  high 
temperature  —  the  thermometer  marking  ninety  de- 
grees, and  scarcely  a  cloud  to  be  seen.  On  trying  the 
electrical  machine  at  such  a  time,  not  a  spark  of  elec- 
tricity can  be  produced,  which  is  an  unmistakable 
sign  that  a  storm  is  approaching.  After  the  storm, 
with  the  thermometer  still  standing  at  ninety  degrees, 
all  feel  exhilarated,  and  ex])ress  themselves  delighted 
with  the  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  electric 
machine  indicates  a  very  great  increase  of  electricity. 
This  exhilaration  manifests  a  resuscitation  of  a  wanted 
power,  and  is  a  stimulus  to  the  nervous  system. 

It  has  been  observed  during  epidemics,  as,  for  in- 


INFLUENCE  OF  HEAT  AND  MOISTURE. 


109 


stance,  on  the  several  occasions  when  epidemic 
cholera  prevailed  in  this  country,  that  there  v^as  a 
very  great  deficiency  of  atmospheric  electricity,  and 
that  the  electricity  increased  in  direct  ratio  with  the 
dechne  of  the  disease.  The  same  result  has  been 
noticed  in  endemic  disease.  In  unhealthy  localities, 
such  as  marshy  districts  of  country,  when  yellow-fe- 
ver, intermittents,  and  kindred  diseases  of  a  ♦low 
grade  supervene,  these  proceed  from  the  action  of  lo- 
cal causes,  which  produce  a  deficiency  of  electricity 
and  consequent  nervous  depression,  and  a  derange- 
ment of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  both  of  which  are 
occasioned  by  the  excessive  evaporation  of  water  in 
the  heated  season  producing  a  chilliness  in  the  night. 


OHAPTEE  VII. 

LOCAL  INFLUENCE  FROM  HEAT  AND  MOISTURE,  AND  THE 
INFLUENCE  OF  COLD. 

Heat  and  moisture — The  disturbing  influence  of  electricity  in  the 
atmospliere  —  Similarity  of  results  in  vital  force  in  the  resist- 
ance of  atmospheric  influence  and  in  the  accumulation  of  mus- 
cular power  for  labor — Means  of  sustaining  the  animal  system 
under  the  influence  of  cold  —  Variations  can  be  made  conducive 
to  improvement  in  health. 

WATER,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  deprives  the  at- 
mosphere of  electricity  and  heat.  The  re- 
sult is  a  rarefied  condition  of  the  air,  caused  by  the 
absorption  of  heat  from  all  surrounding  bodies;  and, 
after  the  sun  has  declined  below  the  horizon,  a  con- 


110  NUTRITION  CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


densation  of  vapor  ensues — a  law  of  nature  well  un- 
derstood by  all  chemists.  This  leads  to  a  chilliness  of 
the  superficies  of  the  body ;  and,  warmth  being  essen- 
tial to  the  maintaining  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
in  the  skin,  the  internal  organs  become  gorged,  and 
remain  so  until  some  influence,  as  that  of  the  returning 
sun,  warms  the  body.  Thus  an  alternate  action  of  in- 
flux and  reflux  of  tlie  circulation  is  produced,  which  -in- 
duces disease,  such  disease  being,  if  the  two  influences 
are  not  excessive,  at  first  of  a  periodical  character,  as 
that  of  intermittent  fever.  But  if,  on  the  contrary, 
the  influences  are  excessive,  the  virulent  forms  of  dis- 
ease ensue,  and  more  especially  attack  persons  who 
are  unacclimated.  Under  such  circumstances,  and 
under  similar  exposure,  the  inhabitant  may  only  have 
an  intermittent  while  the  visitor  will  be  seized  with  a 
typhoid  fever,  the  system  of  the  first  being  somewhat 
adapted  to  resist  this  extraordinary  influence,  from 
his  having  had  previous  attacks  in  a  milder  form. 

This  vital  power  of  resistance  is  cumulative,  but 
it  requires  time  to  accumulate.  The  law  of  nature 
which  here  operates  is  similar  to  that  by  which  vital 
force  is  gradually  increased,  so  that,  in  course  of  time, 
a  man  is  enabled  to  acquire  suflicient  strength  to  per- 
form the  most  arduous  labors  with  apparent  ease. 
Take,  for  example,  men  of  equal  development  of  mus- 
cle, one  a  clerk  and  the  other  a  blacksmith  ;  the  clerk 
would  be  unable  to  wield  a  ten  pound  hammer  for  an 
hour,  while  the  blacksmith  could  ply  it  for  hours 
with  impunity.  The  power  possessed  by  the  black- 
smith could  only  be  acquired  by  the  clerk  after  six 
months'  judicious  exercise ;  for  it  would  require  an  in- 


APPROPHIATION  OF  VITAL  FORCE. 


Ill 


crease  of  activity  in  the  organism  of  the  system  and  a 
more  rapid  change  of  matter,  winch  would  necessitate 
a  special  disposition  of  the  vital  force.  And  that  a 
different  appropriation  of  the  vital  force  is  required, 
is  evinced  in  the  well-known  fact  that  many  men  wlio 
labor  but  little  consume  more  food  than  those  w4io 
are  constantly  at  work,  yet  they  do  not  obtain  mus- 
cular power  as  a  result.  In  such  cases  the  result- 
ant power  from  the  proper  elaboration  of  the  food  is 
probably  exercised  in  the  digestive  process,  and  the 
excess  of  matter  thrown  off  in  tlie  excreta — that  is, 
when  bile  and  fat  do  not  accumulate. 

Here  we  w^ould  call  special  attention  to  a  know- 
leda:e  of  the  fact  that  such  indnlo;ence  is  unnatural  and 
carries  with  it  its  own  punishment,  that  of  enmii^  a 
deplorable  condition,  for  it  tends  to  paralyze  all  the 
greater  feelings  by  excess,  and  to  torpify  all  the  finer 
by  disease.  People  who  thus  indulge  eventually  be- 
come both  disgusted  with  this  world  and  indifferent 
about  the  world  to  come,  and  not  unfrequently  lay 
violent  hands  upon  themselves,  for  they  find  life  a 
burden  and  are  wwse  than  useless  to  society.  It  is 
sad  to  contemplate  that  such  persons  are  often  natu- 
rally possessed  of  fine  mental  as  well  as  physical  en- 
dowments, and  that  they  cast  away  the  precious  gifts 
not  only  intended  for  their  own  happiness,  but  bestow- 
ed upon  them  in  order  that  they  may  benefit  their 
fellow-beings  ;  for  it  is  a  responsibility  required  of  us 
all  by  our  Creator,  that,  w^hen  thus  favored,  we  should 
contribute  to  the  best  of  our  ability  to  the  happiness 
of  our  fellow-men.  The  penalty  that  is  sure  to  follow 
this  unnatural  indulgence,  even  if  it  is  practiced  in  a 


112  NUTRITION  CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 

moderate  degree,  should  deter  ns  fr^^ving  way  to 
it,  for  bad  habits  are  readily  acqi;^j(|i^,  butaj^oi^so  easily 
controlled  when  it  is  our  desire  to  repel  them. 

The  preceding  remarks  apply  more'tJirectly  to  the 
inhabitants  of  our  temperate  zo^e.  In  the  colder  re- 
gions, the  consumption ^of  nutritious  oleaginous  food 
is  necessary  to  enabfe  man  to  keep  up  the  animal 
heat  and  to  *JMK  cold.  In  the  extreme  north, 
the  atmospheric  influence  is  so  great  that  an  extr^^pj.-* 
dinary  effort  of  the  vital  energy  is  required  to  |^i§?^nt 
the  termination  of  life  by  freezing.  The  vital  forc^ 
is,  under  these  circumstances,  actively  exercised  ^n 
Ihe  digestive  and  assimilative  processes,  and  rapid" 
changes  of  matter  are  thereby  induced.  Food  con- 
taining tlie  greatest  possible  quantity  of  carbon — such 
as  pure  fat,  train-oil,  etc. — is  required  to  sustain  the 
increased  activity  for  the  supply  of  heat ;  which  activ- 
ity is  caused  by  the  action  of  oxygen  uniting  with 
carbon,  and  is  increased  in  consequence  of  there  being 
an  increased  quantity  of  the  latter  produced  from  the  * 
carbonaceous  food,  and  an  increased  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen in  tlie  condensed  cold  atmosphere.  Hence  the 
necessity  for  taking  this  very  nutritious  food.  The 
quantity  of  oxygen  inlialed  in  a  cold  atmosphere  far 
exceeds  the  amount  taken  in  in  a  warm  atmosphere, 
although,  in  both,  equal  volumes,  by  bulk,  of  air  are 
taken  in  or  inhaled.  Consequently,  a  cool  atmosphere 
sharpens  the  appetite.  The  increased  quantity  of 
oxygen  inhaled,  soon  reduces  the  ordinary  quantum 
of  carbon,  and  induces  a  more  rapid  change  of  mat- 
ter ;  and  the  result  is,  that  if  food  is  not  supplied 
equal  to  the  demand,  the  organism  is  acted  upon,  and 


CITY  LIFE  PREDISPOSES  TO  SCROFULA. 


113 


the  system  becomes  enfeebled.  This  is  the  process 
tliat  causes  starvation.  A  person  will  starve  in  a 
cold  climate  much  sooner  than  in  a  warm  one,  be- 
cause the  oxygen  inhaled  actually  consumes  the  sys- 
tem in  exact  ratio  to  the  quantity  inhaled. 

And  here  again  we  have  before  us  an  important 
established  fact,  namely,  that  the  variations  in  the 
atmosphere  make  a  very  decided  impression  upon  the 
animal  economy.  However,  if  those  variations  are 
properly  considered  and  turned  to  account,  they  may 
be  made  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  bad  liealth, 
and  may  afford  a  means  for  invigorating  enfeebled 
constitutions  and  establishing  a  tolerable  condition 
of  health. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

CITY  LIFE    PREDISPOSES    TO    SCROFULA  THE  INJURIOUS 

EFFECTS   OF   DRAUGHTS  OF  AIR. 

The  influence  of  city  life  in  inducing"  a  scrofulous  diathesis — The 
various  unfavorable  and  unavoidable  difficulties  that  exist — The 
formation  of  tubercles  under  certain  circumstances — The  seri- 
ous injury  sustained  by  the  human  system  from  concentrated 
draughts  of  air,  and  the  means  of  obviating  the  influence. 

IT  has  long  since  been  observed  by  medical  writers 
that  it  is  in  large  and  densely  populated  cities 
that  scrofulous  tendencies  predominate.  Scrofula  is 
nothing  more  than  an  enervated  condition  of  the  or- 
ganism of  the  system ;  and  it  is  more  especially  in 


114 


NUTRITION — CLIJMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


cities  that  carbonaceous  matter  accumulates  to  excess. 
The  results  of  the  latter  are  morbid  secretions,  which 
derange  the  glandular  tissues,  the  spongy  bones,  and 
the  substance  of  the  lungs  and  liver,  and  produce  the 
formation  of  tubercles  in  those  tissues.  These  little 
spherical  concrete  bodies  have  for  a  nucleus  carbona- 
ceous matter,  enveloped  and  in  a  quiescent  condition. 
They  are  thus  rendered  dormant,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing their  presence,  a  tolerable  condition  of  health  is 
maintained,  and,  in  some  instances,  an  accumulation 
of  fat  takes  place.  Children  often  possess  well-devel- 
oped muscles  and  a  rotundity  of  form,  and  yet  have, 
at  the  same  time,  enlargement  of  the  joints,  w^hich 
evinces  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  spongy  portions 
of  the  bones — a  direct  indication  that  there  is  a  lodg- 
ment of  tubercles  in  their  interstices,  as  well  as  a 
derangement  in  the  assimilative  process. 

In  some  children  there  is  a  tardiness  of  teething, 
which  indicates  a  want  of  ossific  or  bone  pabulum  ;  and 
thus  a  yielding  condition  of  the  long  bones  of  the 
legs,  and,  from  the  strength  of  the  muscles,  a  curva- 
ture^of  these  bones  is  produced,  which  curvature  is  in- 
creased by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  body. 
Bow-legs  is  the  result.  If  a  child,  laboring  under  this 
abnormal  condition  of  health,  is  slightly  bruised,  an 
inflammatory  disposition  is  induced,  which  exhibits 
itself  in  local  inflammation,  with  a  tendency  to  sup- 
puration from  the  acrid  secretion  that  exists  in  the 
system,  and  has  previously  indicated  its  presence  by 
an  eruptive  tendency,  but  which,  however,  will  now 
cease,  in  consequence  of  the  secretion  concentrating 
in  the  excited  part — the  ankle,  the  knee,  the  hip,  or 


DRAUGHTS  OF  AIR  INJURIOUS. 


115 


tlie  spine.  And,  after  tlie  local  inflammation  is  de- 
cidedly established,  an  acrid  discharge,  that  may  have 
previously  come  from  the  nostrils  and  ears,  will  also 
cease,  and  the  enlarged  glands  at  the  angle  of  the  jaws, 
tad  the  enlarged  tonsils  and  eruptive  sores  upon  tlie 
skin,  will  all  likewise  disappear.  The  development 
of  matter,  which  distends  the  diseased  part,  soon  de- 
stroys a  portion  of  the  integument,  and  an  excessive 
drain  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  the  general  system 
to  sustain  such  drain.  If  the  first  impression  has  not 
been  so  severe  as  to  enfeeble  the  assimilative  pro- 
cesses, the  most  nutritious  and  easily  digested  food 
must  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  promote  digestion  and 
sustain  the  system.  The  greatest  possible  amount  of 
oxygen  should  be  inhaled,  without  subjecting  the  pa- 
tient to  chilliness,  as  by  chilliness  the  skin  becomes 
enfeebled  and  can  not  resist  the  influence  of  cold  to 
repel  the  blood  from  the  surface,  which  failure  of 
resistance  produces  a  torpidity  of  one  of  the  largest 
organic  tissues  in  the  system  —  the  skin — and  thus 
tends  to  increase  excitement  in  the  diseased  part. 
The  curative  indications  are,  the  sustaining  of  the 
system  by  nourishment,  properly  selected  with  a  view 
to  its  being  readily  digested  and  assimilated,  and  the 
diff*usion,  by  every  judicious  and  possible  means,  of 
this  local  excitement.  For  the  better  accomplishment 
of  this  desirable  object,  medicine,  judiciously  chosen 
and  administered,  is  of  great  value. 

The  advantages  to  be  obtained  from  an  atmosphere 
well  charged  with  oxygen  are  great ;  but  care  must 
be  taken  to  obtain  those  benefits  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstpmces.    The  patient  must  not  be 


116  NUTRITION — CLIMATE  SANITAKY  AIDS. 


exposed  to  a  concentrated  draught  of  cold  air,  as  it 
robs  the  system  of  its  vital  energy  mncli  more  rapidly 
than  that  energy  can  be  generated,  and  has  a  debili- 
tating influence  far  exceeding  the  advantages  to  be 
obtained  from  the  increased  quantity  of  oxygen  taken 
into  the  system.  If  so  exposed,  the  activity  created 
by  the  chemical  change  which  takes  place,  from  the 
uniting  of  oxygen  with  carbon — evolving  heat  — 
would  be  expended  to  maintain  the  demand  for  heat ; 
and,  if  the  patient  is  very  feeble,  the  organism  would 
have  to  furnish  the  deficiency.  Consequently,  a  favor- 
able location  must  be  selected  in  the  country,  and 
the  room  occupied  by  the  j)atient  kept  in  tempera- 
ture congenial  to  his  or  her  sensibility,  while  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  warm  clothing.  In  addition^ 
the  skin  should  be  frequently  cleansed  and  excited 
by  wearing  coarse  flannel,  and  the  extremities  should 
be  chafed  with  the  warm  hand,  especial  care  being 
taken  to  keep  them  at  all  times  warm. 

The  remarks  here  made  relative  to  the  eff'ects  of  a 
draught  of  air  are  equally  applicable  to  all  conditions 
of  life,  and  in  degree  to  the  ability  of  resistance  to 
the  influence,  and  they  should  be  carefully  observed  by 
delicate  persons.  If  warmly  clad,  out-of-door  expo- 
sure in  a  dry,  cold  atmosphere,  and  especially  when 
regularly  resorted  to,  is  very  conducive  to  good  health. 
The  reverse  of  this  is  the  consequence  in  a  cold, 
damp  atmosphere  ;  for  moisture,  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
is  a  rapid  absorbent  of  heat,  and  robs  the  system  of 
its  vital  energy,  in  direct, proportion  to  its  inability  to 
resist  the  unfavorable  influence. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


.    PROSPECTS    OF    RELIEF    TO     SCROFULOUS  CTIILDREN. 

Relative  prospects  of  relieving  scrofulous  cliildren — The  means 
of  curing"  scrofula — It  can  be  eradicated. 

IT  is  requisite  that  cliildren,  laboring  under  dis- 
charging abscesses,  which  weaken  the  system, 
should  be  thorouglily  sustained,  and  their  organism 
maintained  in  its  integrity.  Sustenance  is  necessary 
to  sustain  the  excessive  discharges,  which  otherwise 
w^ould  reduce  all  the  vital  energy  to  a  state  of  dissolu- 
tion. But  if  properly  supported,  the  sequence  is  a 
recuperative  tendency,  and  this  must  be  aided  by  the 
skillful  adaptation  of  surgico-mechanical  appliances 
for  the  prevention  of  deformity,  which,  if  not  thus 
guarded  against,  would  result  from  the  loss  of  parts ; 
for,  if  the  limbs  or  body  are  not  kept  in  a  normal 
position  till  a  restoration  of  parts  is  accomplished,  the 
diseased  parts  heal  in  their  contracted  condition,  and 
the  deformity  produced  is,  in  many  instances,  incura- 
ble. Persons  thus  situated  are  subjected  to  the  im- 
positions of  vile  pretenders,  to  whom  they  resort  in 
the  hope  that  a  cure  may  be  attained  by  the  use  of 
some  expensive  mechanical  apparatus ;  and  thus  un- 
dergo excruciating  torture,  only  to  increase  their 
deplorable  condition.   The  majority  of  these  cases  are 


118 


NUTKITIOX — CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


remediable  by  skillful  treatment.  They  most  fre- 
quently require  a  surgical  operation  first,  and  then 
the  adaptation  of  properlj^  constructed  a])paratus, 
made  under  the  direction  of  an  experienced  surgeon, 
versed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  sur- 
gico-mechanical  means  for  the  cure  of  deformity.  In 
the  incij)ient  form  of  caries  of  the  spine — that  disease 
of  the  spine  wliicli  results  in  humpback — a  properly 
constructed  support  of  steel  springs,  so  arranged  as 
not  to  press  upon  the  diseased  part,  is  very  valuable. 
Motion  and  attrition  promote  active  absorption  of 
the  spongy  portions  of  the  bones,  which  is  one  of  the 
principal  causes  of  the  deformity.  Such  mechanical 
support  is.  therefore,  of  inestimable  value  in  the  treat- 
ment of  this  disease,  both  as  a  curative  and  a  prevent- 
ive of  deformity  ;  and  by  such  auxiliary  means, 
inflammation  will  be  arrested  in  the  affected  joints, 
as  those  of  the  hip,  knee,  or  ankle.  To  save  scrofu- 
lous children  from  these  deplorable  results,  we  must 
treat  them  upon  sound,  rational  principles ;  first,  by 
considering  their  actual  condition,  and,  secondly,  by 
the  resort  to  such  inviwratino;  and  curative  measures 
as  will  tend  to  relieve  the  morbid  condition  which 
has  existed  from  their  earliest  life. 

We  do  not  entertain  a  doubt  but  that,  in  most  cases 
of  a  scrofulous  tendency,  the  organism  was  primarily 
at  fault,  and  failed  to  perform  its  w^onted  functions 
in  consequence  of  hereditary  deterioration.  This  is 
a  generally  received  opinion.  It  is  also  believed  that 
the  morbid  condition  can  not  be  eradicated  and  a 
healthy  one  established  ;  but  from  this  view  we  must 
beg  leave  to  diff*er,  and  for  the  following  reason: — 


SCROFULA  CAN  BE  ERADICATED. 


119 


Witli  very  few  exceptions,  cliildren  tlms  predisposed 
grow  and  develop  in  size  and  form  quite  equal  to  those 
wlio  are  not,  and,  by  ordinary  care,  escape  the  terri- 
ble affliction  through  childhood,  the  disease  being 
only  developed  in  adult  age,  most  commonly  in  the 
form  of  consumption.  We  must  certainly  infer  from 
this  fact,  that  the  tendency  to  morbid  derangements 
can  be  modified. 

By  ordinary  care,  even  under  the  unfavorable  con- 
dition of  a  city  life,  relief  can  be  given  to  children  who 
are  hereditarily  predisposed  to  scrofula,  but  in  whom, 
liowever,  after  ihej  have  reached  an  age  at  which 
they  are  permitted  the  control  of  themselves,  and 
then  only  hy  some  gross  im.jpTvdence^  the  latent  mor- 
bid matter,  known  as  tubercles,  may  be  excited  into  an 
inflammatory  condition,  which  will  result  in  consump- 
tion. Now,  as  this  tuberculous  state  can  be  rendered 
dormant  by  ordinary  care,  and  can  be  kept  so  even 
under  unfavorable  circumstances,  we  entertain  the 
belief  that  it  can  be  eradicated,  and  are  prepared  to 
assert  that  it  has  been,  under  favorable  conditions. 

We  have  remarked,  it  is  well  known  that  individuals 
having  decidedly  scrofulous  parentage  have  enjoyed 
most  robust  constitutions.  This  we  must  attribute  to 
their  having  been  nurtured,  during  childhood,  under 
the  most  favorable  circumstances,  the  tendency  of 
which  is,  as  it  is  in  the  animal  economy  during 
growth,  to  throw  oif  and  resist  all  morbid  influences. 
Such  is  an  undeniable  fact,  often  realized  by  sending 
children  out  of  our  large  cities  for  the  improvement 
of  their  delicate  health.  And  that  desirable  object 
is  abnost  invariably  obtained  without  any  special 


120 


N  UTKITI O  X — CLl  M  ATE — S  ANITA  II Y  AIDS. 


care,  other  tliaii  pertains  to  a  country  life — the  adv^an- 
tages  of  a  different  atmosphere,  phiiner  diet,  more 
regnhir  habits  in  eating  and  sleeping,  and  less  extra- 
ordinary excitement.  Yet  all  of  these  advantages 
miglit  be  secured  in  a  city  home,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  atmosphere,  Avhich,  in  the  countiy,  is 
purer,  and  in  a  more  condensed  form  and  liigher  elec- 
tric condition.  If,  however,  these  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  do  not  exist  in  that  part  of  the  country 
resorted  to,  then  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  by 
sending  a  feeble  child  or  an  invalid  adult  out  of  town 
that  could  not  be  obtained  in  the  city.  And  thus  it 
is  that  many  delii  ate  children  are  enabled  to  enjoy 
tolerable  health  m  the  city,  and  even  to  become  ro- 
bust. In  making  these  i*emarks,  we  have  reference 
to  a  general  feebleness,  or  want  of  stamina  in  the 
organism,  unattended  by  disease  of  the  lungs. 


t)ELETEEI0US    INFLUENCES    AND  DISINFECTANTS. 

Unfavorable  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  densely  populated 
cities — Deleterious  influences  engendered  by  carelessness — Dis- 
infectants, and  the  proper  methods  of  applying  them. 


iHETlE  exist  in  all  large  and  densely  populated 


M  cities,  and  in  other  cities  in  proportion  to  their 
density  of  population,  unavoidable  causes  of  deteriora- 
tion of  the  atmosphere,  even  under  the  most  favorable 
condition  of  the  weather.   There  is  the  diffusion  of  an 


CHAPTER  X. 


DELETERIOUS  INFLUENCES. 


V21 


excessive  quantity  of  water  in  the  form  of  vapor— -a 
powerful  moans  of  depriving  the  atmosphere  of  its 
electricity,  wliicli  is  a  necessary  stimulus  to  the  animal 
system,  and  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  vivacity 
and  vigor.  And  there  is  also  a  diffusion,  or  lightness 
of  the  atmospheric  air,  from  tlie  excessive  quantity  of 
heat  recjuired  througliout  the  year  for  various  domestic 
and  manufacturing  purposes.  Tlie  last-named  un- 
favorable influence  can  he  modified  by  judicious 
ventilation  and  by  keeping  the  apartments  cool  in 
winter,  or  never  above  sixty-five  ctegrees  of  Fahren- 
heit, throughout  the  day.  Sleeping  rooms  should  be 
kept  at  a  tenq^erature  of  between  thirty-five  and  forty 
degrees.  Much  of  this  debilitating  influence  can  thus 
be  obviated  :  for  the  atmospheric  air  will  be  so  con- 
densed that,  when  inhaled,  it  w^U  aflford  sufiicient 
oxygen  to  relieve  the  system  of  the  accumulated 
carbon,  unless  a  person  has  indulged  in  an  excessive 
quantity  of  carb>onaceous  food,  such  as  fat  meats, 
gravies,  butter,  cakes,  pastry,  sweetmeats,  sirups,  al- 
coholic drinks,  etc.  An  overpowering  of  the  digestive 
organs,  without  a  suflSciency  of  vital  force  to  enable 
them  to  perform  their  wonted  functions,  causes'  a 
morbid  action  that  impairs  the  whole  system  to  such 
an  extent  as  in  some  instances  to  terminate  in  paraly- 
sis and  death. 

One  other  prolific  cause  of  disease  in  densely  popu- 
lated cities  is  most  worthy  of  notice.  It  is  that  of  a 
constant  putrefactive  fermentation  of  organized  mat- 
ter— vegetable  and  animal— which  diminishes  and  in- 
creases in  ratio  to  unfavorable  circumstances.  Among 
these  unfavorable  circumstances,  the  most  predomi- 


122 


NUTEITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS. 


nant  are  :  close,  ill-ventilated  apartments,  insnfflcient 
drainage  from  dwellings,  and  the  aeciimnlations  of 
substances  wliicli  readily  tend  to  decay,  and  are  per- 
mitted by  carelessness  to  remain  in  cellars,  vaults,  and 
sinks.  From  tliese  sources  there  is  generated  an  ex- 
cessive quantity  of  poisonous  gases  detrimental  to 
liealtli ;  and  from  them  even  endemics  and  epidemics 
are  sustained,  but  in  direct  proportion  to  tlie  unfavor- 
able condition  of  atmospheric  influence,  as,  for  in- 
stance, an  excess  of  heat  or  moisture. 

Living  animal  excreta,  if  permitted  to  accumulate 
by  ill-constructed  accommodations,  generate  an  insid- 
ious and  pernicious  emanation  which  tends  to  impair 
the  health,  more  especially  of  delicate  persons.  Latent 
diseases,  as  that  of  scrofula,  are  at  times  developed  and 
maintained  from  this  source  of  excitement,  to  the 
destruction  of  the  unfortunate  individuals  thus  ex- 
posed ;  and  it  renders  the  more  healthy  susceptible 
to  the  influence  of  any  existing  endemic  or  epidemic 
that  may  prevail.  Tliis  easily  accounts  for  apparently 
healthy  persons,  residing  in  what  are,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  healthy  localities,  being  attacked  by 
sorne  predominant  disorder,  and,  in  some  instances, 
for  whole  families  falling  a  sacrifice  to  it. 

It  must  be  most  readily  perceived  by  the  reader 
that  this  deleterious  influence  is  only  engendered 
by  the  inattention  of  the  heads  of  families  to  an  in- 
cumbent duty  which  devolves  upon  them,  that  of  super- 
vising the  premises  they  occupy.  Corrective  means 
are  within  the  power  of  the  most  humble  occupant 
of  an  apartment,  namely,  cleanliness  and  disinfect- 
ants, which  latter  are  readily  and  cheaply  obtained 


DISINFECTAN-TS. 


123 


The  price  of  a  mug  of  beer,  a  paper  of  tobacco,  or  a 
glass  of  spirituous  liquor  would  purchase  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  chloride  of  lime  to  neutralize  the  foul 
emanations  of  a  sleeping  apartment  in  a  tenement 
house  for  a  week  ;  that  could  be  accomplished  by 
placing  a  tea-spoonful  every  other  day  under  the  bed, 
and,  when  replaced  by  a  fresh  supply,  throwing  it 
into  the  chamber  or  slop-pail.  Each  family  doing 
this  would  deodorize  and  destroy  all  the  foul  emana- 
tions that  would  arise  from  what  must  be  considered 
unavoidable  accumulations  about  such  apartments,  or, 
indeed,  in  any  occupied  dwelling — a  precaution  of 
especial  importance  in  crowded  cities.  This  chloride 
of  lime  is  the  most  convenient  disinfectant  for  fami- 
lies, and  the  least  objectionable;  yet  to  some  its  odor 
is  unpleasant. 

To  disinfect  sinks,  water-closets,  cess-pools,  and 
sewers,  sulphate  of  iron — commonly  known  as  green 
vitriol — two  ounces  to  the  gallon  of  water,  is  the  most 
eifectual  means,  and  should  be  used  during  the  sum- 
mer season  twice  a  week  in  liberal  quantities.  Care 
should  be  observed  in  its  use,  as  it  leaves  a  permanent 
stain  on  white  clothing.  The  burning  of  sulphur  in 
apartments  which  are  in  a  foul  condition — infected 
with  vermin  or  subject  to  mould  or  mildew — is  the 
most  effectual  means  known  of  cleansing  and  purifying 
them.  The  apartments,  however,  must  he  ttnocGitpied 
during  the  jproGSss  *  and  to  complete  it,  the  walls  and 
ceiling  should  receive  two  or  three  good  coatings  of 
wdiitewash  made  from  unslacked  lime,  into  which 
should  be  thrown  a  handful  of  common  salt,  as  it 
makes  the  material  more   effectual  and  adhe*'e^.^ 


124  KUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY  AIDS; 


These  applications  will  render  the  most  unwholesome 
rooms  perfectly  innoxious  for  a  time  ;  but,  if  unfavor- 
ably located,  and  inhabited  by  careless,  indifferent 
people,  the  process  should  be  repeated  very  frequent- 
ly, in  order  to  insure  a  favorable  condition  of  health, 
not  only  to  the  inmates,  but  to  their  neighbors.  A 
collection  of  fermenting  putrefactive  matter  will  ex- 
tend its  influence  to  a  wdiole  neighborhood  ;  hence,  it 
must  be  inferred  that  cleanliness  in  every  part  of  it  is 
the  only  reliable  protection  to  the  inhabitants  against 
the  poisonous  effluvia  which  arises  from  an  accumula- 
tion of  filth. 

Home  comforts,  in  an  extended  sense,  comprise  well- 
ventilated  apartments,  careful  family  discipline,  whole- 
some food,  comfortable  clothing  suitable  to  all  seasons 
and  atmospheric  changes,  and  active  exercise  in  the 
open  air;  and,  to  complete  all,  happiness  and  pleasur- 
able enjoyment.  If  children  are  brought  up  under 
these  influences,  all  scrofulous  taint  will  be  eradicated 
in  less  than  three  generations,  although  such  children 
may  never  go  beyond  the  suburbs  of  a  city. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


DAJTGERS  ATTENDING  EXCESSIVE  EATING  WARMING  AND 

VENTILATING  APARTMENTS — CAUSES  OF  DIPHTHERIA 
AND  CONSUMPTION. 

People  under  favorable  conditions  become  large  'eaters — ^Cliildren 
require  more  food  than  adults — The  importance  of  selecting  suit- 
able locations  for  country  resort — The  proper  method  of  heat- 
ing dwelling-houses  and  the  means  of  ventilating  theni — How 
diphtheria  and  consumption  are  engendered. 

r  I IHE  reader  is  a«:ain  reminded  that  tlie  vital  force 


I  can  be  accumnlatedj  if  time  is  given  and  a 
gradual  increase  of  the  quantity  of  food  taken  is  ob- 
served and  practiced.  And  so  it-  is  that  persons  will 
become  large  eaters  with  tolerable  impunity,  though 
somewhat  dependent  upon  circumstances.  But,  in 
order  to  take  in  a  sufficiency  of  oxygen  to  relieve  the 
system  of  the  resultant  carbon,  the  secreting  organs 
must^  be  active,  and  the  lungs  must  perform  their 
functions  well,  or  disease  will  ensue,  and  that  fre- 
quently of  a  most  serious  character. 

Some  individuals  possess  a  peculiarly  active  condi- 
tion of  the  organism  ;  and  tlierefore,  to  sustain  an 
equilibrium,  they  require  a  greater  quantity  of  food 
than  others  not  so  constituted.  In  such  persons  the 
secretions  are  very  active,  and  arr^  indicated  by  the 


126  NUTKITIOJS" — CLIMATIS — SANITARY  AIDS. 


soiling  of  their  iinder-clothes.  In  adults  tliis  active  con- 
dition of  the  organism  is  analogous  to  that  of  children 
in  a  healthy  condition,  with  tlie  exception  that  tlie 
excess  in  the  latter  is  appropriated  to  their  growth ; 
and,  if  they  are  not  properly  supplied  w^ith  food,  not 
only  will  that  grow^th  he  retarded,  but  their  general 
health  will  be  impaired.  If  children  are  under  the 
influence  of  a  bracing  atmosphere  in  the  country,  the 
greater  will  be  the  impairment;  but  the  reverse  is  the 
case  if  care  be  then  taken  to  supply  them  with  a  suffi- 
ciency of  wholesome  food  at  regular  stated  periods. 
It  is  in  this  latter  that  consists  the  great  advantage 
which  accrues  to  a  child's  health  when  it  is  sent  into 
the  country,  provided  a  suitable  location  has  been  se- 
lected, wdiich  is,  after  all,  of  the  utmost  importance. 

To  choose  such  a  locality  requires  experience  and 
judgment.  To  send  a  child  laboring  under  an  inflam- 
matory condition  of  the  system  to  a  mountainous 
region  or  to  high,  cultivated  table-lands*  would  be  add- 
ing fuel  to  the  flame  ;  while  to  send  one  of  naturally 
good  constitution,  but  enfeebled  by  some  unfavorable 
circumstances,  to  a  low,  marshy  district,  would  but 
weaken  the  child  still  more.  From  these  considera- 
tions it  will  be  readily  perceived  that,  in  many  in- 
stances, it  would  be  essentially  necessary  to  select  an 
intermediate  region.  This  remark  applies  equally  to 
invalid  adults,  many  of  whom  have  been  seriously 
injured  by  the  indiscriminate  selection  of  country 
resorts — such  as  the  rural  abode  of  some  relative  or 
friend,  or  a  fashionable  watering-place — which  con- 
form to  their  desire  rather  than  to  wdiat  might  be 
most  conducive  to  the  restoration  of  vigor.    A  more 


WAKMING  AKD  VENTILATING  ROOMS. 


127 


potent  remedial  agency  can  not  be  afforded  to  inA^alida 
than  that  of  a  suitable  atmosphere.  It  tends  directly 
to  establish  the  normal  performance  of  the  functions 
of  the  organism  which  are  deranged,  most  commonly 
and  more  especially  when  domiciled  in  very  populous 
cities,  by  unfavorable  surrounding  circumstances. 

If  apartments  are  properly  ventilated,  warmth  ob- 
tained by  means  of  steam  or  heated  air  can  be  ren- 
dered tolerable,  even  to  the  enjoyment  of  good  healtli, 
comparatively  speaking,  and  bearing  in  mind  the  other 
.injurious  influences  ever  existhig  in  densely  populated 
cities.  If  economy  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  as  well 
as  a  ready  distribution  of  heat  to  all  parts  of  an  ordi* 
nary  dwelling  are  desired,  the  heating  'apparatus 
should  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  cellar.  Large 
public  buildings  require  more  extensive  arrangements, 
as  much  heat  is  dissipated  by  its  being  conducted  in 
horizontal  pipes  to  a  great  distance.  However  when  a 
diagonal  upward  conduction  is  employed,  the  heat  is 
not  dissipated  in  the  same  proportion  as  it  is  in  hori- 
zontal pipes;  and  consequently,  from  there  being 
little,  if  any,  loss  of  heat,  it  can  thus  be  readily  dis- 
tributed to  the  upper  stories  of  a  building.  If  the 
main  dividing  partition  of  a  house  is  built  of  brick, 
branches  of  heating  flues  can  be  distributed  with 
safety.  Each  room  of  a  residence  or  other  building 
should  have  placed  in  the  floor,  on  one  side  of  the 
room,  two  registers  for  the  admission  of  heat,  separated 
at  equal  distances  from  each  other  and  from  either 
end  of  the  room ;  and  on  tlie  opposite  side  there 
should  be  two  corresponding  ventilating  registers  in 
the  floor,  connecting  with  flues  extending  to  the  top 


128  NUTKITION — CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


of  the  house  or  building ;  and  these  ventilating  flues, 
to  be  effectual  in  their  operation,  should  serve  only- 
one  apartment,  otherwise  an  interference  would  ensue 
from  the  opening  of  ventilators  above  or  below.  A 
large  hall  or  apartment  should  be  constructed  in  a 
similar  manner,  having,  however,  a  greater  number 
of  registers. 

.  In  rooms  thus  provided,  the  heat  which  rises  from 
the  floor  will  be  diffused  throughout  them.  The 
tendency  of  the  heat  will  be  to  ascend,  but,  there 
being  no  outlet  above,  it  will  be  diffused,  and  ample 
ventilation  established  by  the  tw^o  ventilating  flues 
which  have  their  egress  above  the  roof.  Under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  the  temperature  of  a  room,  cold  air 
will  be  furnished  bj  one  of  the  ventilating  flues,  and 
the  heated  air  will  pass  out  through,  the  other.  If  the 
door  is  thrown  open,  then  both  ventilators  w^ill  be  en- 
gaged in  conducting  off  the  heated  air ;  but  if  the  door 
is  kept  closed,  fresh  air  will  be  supplied  to  the  room 
in  the  manner  stated.  The  admission  of  fresh  air  in 
this  manner  is  of  great  importance.  Room  doors  often 
shut  very  close,  and  heated  air  is  frequently  kept  con- 
fined for  hours  in  an  apartment,  wdiile,  at  the  same 
time,  it  wUl  be  crow^ded  w^ith  people,  who  are  thereby 
exposed  to  most  serious  consequences,  Tlie  ailments 
that  arise  from  such  exposure  present  various  phases, 
wdiich  are  but  rarely  attributed  to  the  real  source. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  warming  apartments  by  means 
of  heated  air  is  any  thing  but  comfortable  ;  and  the 
effect  is,  as  generally  expressed,  that  "  the  feet  are 
freezing  while  the  head  is  ovcr-hcated."  This  is  wliat 
might  rationally  be  expected^  v/ith,  as  is  most  fre- 


DIPHTHERIA  AND  CONSUMPTIOIS . 


129 


quently  the  case,  a  register  for  the  admission  of  heated 
air  placed  a  foot  above  the  floor,  and  a  ventilator 
about  a  foot  beh)\v  the  ceiling.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  heated  air  ascends  to  the  ceiling  and  warms 
only  the  upper  stratum  of  air,  while  the  reverse  should 
be  accomplished,  but  it  is  impossible  under  such  an 
arran.o'ement.  With  reo^isters  and  ventilators  so  situ- 
ated,  there  is  no  possibility  of  equalizing  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  room.  If  the  ventilator  is  kept  open,  the 
heat  will  pass  off,  and  the  room  will  be  uncomforta- 
bly cold.  If  closed,  the  air  will  become  very  impure, 
and  tlie  only  relief  will  be  to  throw  open  all  the  inner 
doors  and  equalize  the  heat  throughout  the  house. 
As  this  is  not  always  convenient,  the  evit  is  endured, 
to  the  injury  of  the  liealth,  and  particularly  that  of 
children  and  delicate  persons. 

Cold  feet  determines  the  blood  to  the  vital  organs, 
which  conduces  to  congestion  and  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  and  brain.  If  those  organs  are  predisposed  to 
such  ailments,  the  result  must  be,  at  least,  most  un- 
favorable. Here  is  the  source  from  which  have  main- 
ly sprung  those  violent  inflammations  of  the  throat 
that  have  been  so  very  prevalent  for  the  last  few 
years — diphtheria  and  other  congestive  conditions 
of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  fauces,  larynx,  and 
bronchia — and,  in  some  instances,  those  bronchial  af- 
fections that  are  not  excited  into  an  active  condition 
until  after  months  and  years  of  alternate  exposure  to 
the  predisposing  influence.  In  the  latter  case,,  the 
superficial  vessels  become  weakened  by  distention, 
"and,  owing  to  the  exposure  being  repeated  every  win- 
ter, tliough  relieved  in  the  summer,  never  recover  their 


130 


NUTRITION — CLIMATE  SANITARY  AIDS. 


lost  tone,  "but  are,  at  last,  under  some  extraordinary 
eircnmstance,  excited  into  active  disease  of  an  incur- 
able character;  for  the  parts  affected  having  been  pre- 
viously permanently  indurated,  the  ultimate  result  is 
bronchitis. 

When  a  tuberculous  condition  of  the  lungs  exists, 
consumption  supervenes  at  an  early  day.  It  is  more 
than  probable  that  tubercles  are  engendered  in  the 
systems  of  children  from  their  being  confined  in  apart- 
ments lighted  with  gas,  and  warmed  by  the  ordinary 
means  of  heated  air,  with  defective  ventilation.  Un- 
der such  circumstances,  the  apartments  are  kept  very 
warm  ;  consequently  there  is  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  to 
support  healthy  respiration,  while  an  excess  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  is  inhaled  from  the  gas  that  escapes  and  is 
unconsumed  by  burning.  And  thus  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter is  permitted  to  be  returned  in  the  arterial  circula- 
tion intermingled  with  the  animalized  matter  for  the 
sustenance  of  the  organism,  and  is  deposited  in  the  pa- 
renchymatous structures  of  the  soft  parts  and  spongy 
portions  of  the  bones.  When  such  foreign  substances 
are  lodged  in  the  living  system,  the  tendency  is  to  in- 
case or  cover  them,  and  the  granular  cysts,  known  as 
tubercles,  are  thus  formed  ;  and  this  tendency  is  great- 
er when  the  food  consists  largely  of  fats  and  other 
carbonaceous  substances  —  of  molasses,  candies,  and 
food  containing  much  starch.  Although  bread  is 
called  the  staff-  of  J/ife^  yet  it  is  never  depended  upon 
solely  to  sustain  life  and  vigor.  The  diet  of  children, 
who  are  confined  in  rooms  so  unfavorable  to  health, 
as  those  just  referred  to,  should  be  lean  meat  in  mod- 
erate quantity,  bread,  and  milk  that  has  had  the 
cream  tak^en  off* 


PART  IV. 

HE     PhEMISTRY    of  j^OOD. 


CHAPTER  I. 


NUTRIMENT  CLASSIFIED. 

The  food  of  man  divided  into  two  classes — Nitrogenized  sub- 
stances, or  tlie  articles  tliat  form  blood — Non-nitrogenized  sub- 
stances, or  the  elements  of  respiration. 

AFTER  a  tliorougli  investigation  of  the  subject. 
Professor  Liebig  divides  the  food  of  man  into 
two  classes — nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized.  The 
former  is  capable  of  conversion  into  blood;  the  lat- 
ter is  incapable  of  such  transformation.  Out  of 
those  substances  which  are  adapted  to  the  production 
of  blood  all  organized  tissues  are  formed.  In  the 
normal  state  of  health  the  other  class  of  substances 
serves  to  support  the  process  of  respiration.  The  first 
may  be  called  the  ijlastic  elements  of  nutrition — in 
other  words,  the  animalized  matter  for  replacing  the 
particles  of  the  organism  which  are  "being  constantly 
throwm  off ;  for,  as  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  a  con- 
tinual change  of  matter  is  constantly  going  on  in  the 
living  animal  economy.  The  last  may  be  denomi- 
nated elements  of  respiration^  as  they  consist  of  those 
substances  that,  by  their  union  with  oxygen,  form  car- 
bonic acid  and  water,  which  are  thrown  off  in  the 
breath,  bile,  etc.,  and  that,  by  the  same  union,  elimi- 
nate the  heat  of  the  body. 


134 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


The  articles  of  food  wliicli  form  blood  are  designated 
as  follows : 

Nitrogenized  Substances. 
Vegetable  fibrin.  Animal  flesh. 

Vegetable  albumen.  Animal  blood. 

Vegetable  casein. 
And  those  carbonaceous  portions  of  food,  termed 
elements  of  respiration,  which  are  commonly  more  or 
less  combined  with  what  we  eat,  but  at  times  taken 
separately,  are  as  under : 

Non-Nitrogenized  Svhstances. 

Fat,  from  whatever  source.  Pectine. 

Starch,  found  largely  in  the  potato.  Basorine. 

Gum,  readily  converted  into  sugar.  Wine. 

Cane  sugar,  in  various  forms.  Beer. 

Grape  sugar,  contained  in  fruits.  Spirits. 
Sugar  of  milk,  as  contained  therein. 

The  reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  vegetable  fibrin, 
albumen,  and  casein,  when  separated  from  vegetables, 
are  identical  with  fibrin,  albumen,  and  casein  ob- 
tained from  organized  animal  matter ;  and  that  the 
diff'erence  between  vegetable  and  animal  diet  consists 
in  its  being  possible  to  make  a  selection  of  those  vege- 
tables which  contain  a  less  proportion  of  carbonaceous 
matter  than  is  found  in  others.  We  are  also  able  to 
avoid  carbonaceous  products  that  have  been  separated 
from  vegetable  and  animal  substances  by  art.  To 
enable  us  to  accomplish  this,  it  has  already  been  men- 
tioned that  we  have  reliable  chemical  analvsis. 


CHAPTER  IT. 


THE  ACTUAL  NUTRHVIENT  OBTAINED  FKOM  FOOD. 

Chemistry  in  relation  to  man's  normal  condition  of  liealtli — Organ- 
ized elemental  substances  the  result  of  vegetable  life — Analysis 
of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  used  as  food — Food  desig- 
nated for  the  seasons. 

THE  facts  set  forth  in  the  precednig  pages  show 
that  modern  chemistry,  by  a  rational  exercise 
of  reasoning  in  regard  to  man's  normal  condition  of 
health,  has  taught  us  what  is  necessary  for  our  proper 
sustenance  and  conduces  most  to  development  and 
strength  ;  and  which  may  briefly  be  stated  as  being — 
1st.  An  accumulation  of  force  in  direct  ratio  to  the 
expenditure. 

2d.  Nutriment  for  the  production  of  that  force. 
3d.  Carbonaceous  food,  clothing,  and  all  ordinary 
means  that  support  and  sustain  animal  heat,  under 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  circumstances. 

Strength  is  constantly  being  exhausted  by  both 
physical  and  mental  exercise  ;  while  warmth  is  dif- 
fused in  direct  proportion  to  the  variations  of  tem- 
perature, which  are  continually  operating  —  for  a 
uniformity  of  animal  heat  is  essential  to  the  suste- 
nance of  a  normal  condition  of  health.  To  obtain 
these  in  a  rational  manner,  it  is  necessary  that  we 


136 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


slioiild  acquaint  ourselves  with  the  component  parts 
of  the  food  we  eat.  And  this  is  not  so  difficult  a 
matter  as  might  at  first  be  imagined,  as  we  have  for 
our  guidance  the  truths  that  have  been  established 
by  our  learned  chemists,  who  have  carefully  analyzed 
the  constituents  of  the  animal  body,  and  have  deter- 
mined what  elemental  substances  constitute  the  vege- 
table organized  substances  that  are  essential  to  sustain 
the  living  animal  economy. 

The  elemental  substances,  as  gases  in  their  simple 
forms,  are  actually  noxious.  They  must  be  first 
formed  by  vegetable  life  into  organized  compounds, 
in  order  to  constitute  suitable  food  for  man  ;  and 
these  are  denominated  primary  compounds,  or,  by 
chemists,  proximate  elements.  These  primary  com- 
pounds are  furnished  by  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances as  food,  and  are  divided  into  two  classes,  car- 
boniferous and  nitrogenous.  The  first  class  consists 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  ;  the  second,  of  car 
bon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  Tlie  common 
substances  which  constitute  or  contain  the  gases  of 
the  first  class  are  wood,  starch,  gum,  sugar,  and  oil ; 
and  those  of  the  second,  or  nitrogenous,  are  albumen, 
casein,  and  fibrin. 

Wood,  gum,  and  starch  contain  like  proportions  of 
gases  :  12  parts  carbon,  10  parts  oxygen,  and  10  parts 
lij^drogen. 

Cane  sugar  contains  12  parts  carbon,  11  parts  hydro- 
gen, and  11  parts  oxygen. 

Albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein  contain  each  40  parts 
carbon,  12  parts  oxygen,  31  parts  hydrogen,  and  5 
parts  nitrogen. 


NUTRIMENT 


OBTiMNED  PBOM  FOOD. 


137 


From  tliese^analyses  we  learn  tlie  nutrient  powers 
of  substances  taken  as  food  ;  and  from  them  we  con- 
chide  : 

1st.  That  in  cold  weather  fat  is  not  only  a  proper 
but  a  necessary  article  of  food,  more  especially  in  a 
country  life,  and  to  out-door  laborers. 

•2d.  That  lean  meat  and  vegetables,  having  a  much 
inferior  heat-sustaining  power,  are  preferable  for  per- 
sons living  in  close,  confined  apartments,  warmed  by 
furnaces  and  lighted  with  gas. 

3d.  That  a  fat  diet  should  be  discontinued  on  the 
return  of  summer,  or  on  going  to  a  warm  climate  ; 
when  all  decidedly  carbonaceous  food  and  drinks 
should  be  avoided. 

4th.  Tliat  after  an  examination  of  the  food  neces- 
sary to  enable  the  system  to  meet  increasing  cold,  we 
are  the  better  prepared  to  understand  what  may  be 
necessary  to  prepare  tlie  system  to  meet  the  required 
increase  of  heat. 

When  the  temperature  daily  increases  or  decreases, 
so  that  the  system  is  more  and  more  taxed  to  maintain 
its  exact  equilibrium,  additional  material  will  be  re- 
quired, of  one  kind  or  other,  as  the  case  may  be,  to 
sustain  the  new  expenditure  of  vital  force.  In  au- 
tumn, there  is  a  special  supply  of  carbonaceous  ma- 
terial and  a  corresponding  appetite.  In  spring,  we 
look  for  diverse  indications  in  both  external  nature 
and  ourselves.  The  first  invites  carbonaceous  food  of 
heating  properties,  while  the  last  demands  food  of  a 
-cooling  nature. 

The  productions  of  spring  and  summer  are  salads, 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  the  cereals.    The  two  latter 


138 


THE  CHEMISTKY  OF  FOOD. 


classes  ripen  late,  so  as  to  bring  their  consnmption  in 
the  cool  rather  than  in  tlie  warm  season  of  onr  tem- 
perate zone.  In  the  tropics,  the  supply  of  all  four  is 
always  adequate  to  the  demand  ;  while  here  we  have 
in  spring  and  early  summer  only  salads  and  a  limited 
quantity  of  fruit.  Most  of  our  garden  and  orchard 
fruits  are  composed  of  nearly  the  same  constituents, 
namely,  a  little  w^oody  fibre,  more  or  less  sugar,  and 
several  acids,  of  which  latter  the  most  common  are 
malic,  citric,  and  tartaric.  Two  or  more  of  these 
acids  are  usually  found  in  every  fruit,  although  one 
preponderates  and  gives  the  fruit  its  peculiar  flavor, 
as  the  malic  in  apples  and  pears,  and  the  citric  in 
currants.  At  different  stages  of  the  growth  of  fruit 
those  various  substances  are  in  different  proportions, 
the  w^oody  fibre  or  cellular  usually  being  the  most 
abundant.  It  has  been  previously  stated  that  woody 
fibre  differs  but  slightly  from  sugar  ;  it  will  not,  then, 
be  difficult  to  comprehend  the  fact  that,  by  the  action 
of  the  acid  of  the  fruit,  what  is  cellular  at  one  time 
may  be  found  to  be  sugar  at  another. 

Previous  to  maturity,  fruits  are  formed  of  a  com- 
pact cellular  tissue  which  contains  the  elements  of 
woody  fibre,  and  is  filled  with  a  liquid,  a  gummy  sub- 
stance, in  which  there  is  very  little  sugar  and  a  large 
quantity  of  free  acid.  When  ripening,  a  part  of  the 
acid  disappears  by  the  action  of  oxygen  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sun,  the  cellular  tissue  diminishes,  and 
the  proportion  of  sugar  increases,  insomuch  that,  in- 
stead of  hard,  woody,  acerb  fruits,  we  obtain,  if  the 
ripening  has  been  complete,  fruits  that  yield  a  sac- 
charine juice. — Turner. 


JSrUTRIMENT  OBTAINED  FROM  FOOD. 


139 


The  cliief  elements  of  ripe  fruits,  therefore,  appear 
to  be  water,  gum,  sugar,  and  acids,  of  which  the  only 
one  still  requiring  our  attention  is  the  acid,  and  this 
will  be  further  considered  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

Fruits  are  decidedly  more  nutritious  than  young 
vegetable  growth,  and,  if  the  system  has  been  proper- 
ly relieved  by  eating  very  light  diet  in  the  spring, 
form  a  more  suitable  diet  in  the  summer.  As  heat 
increases  in  the  spring,  the  carbonaceous  food  required 
to  sustain  a  sufficiency  of  heat  during  the  winter  be- 
comes oppressive,  and  the  appetite  fails  in  its  keen 
zest  for  such  diet.  It  is,  consequently,  then  that  the 
early  growths  of  spring  allure  the  imagination,  from 
a  universal  impression  that  to  eat  them  conduces  to 
good  health,  and  that  they  are,  therefore,  seasonable 
food.  And  as  the  mind  alone,  not  the  digestive  or- 
gans, suggests  the  necessity  of  eating  the  usual  quanti- 
ty of  food,  the  light  cellular  watery  vegetable  growths 
of  that  season  furnish  the  desired  supply,  without  dis- 
tressing the  systems  of  those  who  enjoy  tolerably 
good  health.  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  hale  persons 
usually  feel  oppressed,  and  indisposed  to  activity. 
Hence,  it  is  an  old  custom  to  seek  relief  by  purga- 
tives, and  by  filling  the  stomach  witli  nauseous  teas 
made  from  herbs  and  roots,  which  certainly  tend  to  do 
some  good,  in  so  far  as  they  lessen  the  disposition  to 
partake  of  nutritious  food.  Thus  the  system  is  afford- 
ed an  opportunity  to  relieve  itself  of  the  excess  of  car- 
bon, which  would  otherwise  form  fat  or  bile,  and 
eventually  bring  on  a  bilious  fever,  or  some  more 
serious  derangement. 

From  what  we  have  stated,  it  may  be  inferred  that 


140 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


it  is  essentially  necessary  to  tlie  maintenance  of  good 
health,  that  in  the  spring,  as  warm  weather  approaches, 
we  should  abstain  from  eating  so  great  a  quantity  of 
carbonaceous  food  as  we  had  been  accustomed  to  take 
during  the  w^inter ;  and  that  during  warm  weather 
we  should  confine  ourselves  more  directly  to  a  vegeta- 
ble and  fruit  diet,  wdien  the  fruit  and  vegetables  can 
be  procured  fresh  and  uncontaminated  by  tlie  foul 
gases  generated  in  and  emitted  from  decomposing 
matter  which  has  accumulated  in  the  markets  and 
shops  and  renders  them  actually  unwholesome. 


How  unripe  fruits  affect  the  system — They  are  most  injurious  to 
young  children — Means  of  relief  when  injury  has  been  sustained. 


E  have,  heretofore,  more  than  once  stated  that 


▼  y  fruits  and  vegetables,  as  obtained  in  our  large 
cities,  invite  the  special  attention  of  the  citizen,  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  often  purchased  from  dealers  as 
fresh,  when,  in  reality,  owing  to  the  manner  in  which 
they  have  been  conveyed  to  market,  tliey  are  per- 
nicious. We  will  now  offer  a  few  remarks  upon  the 
injurious  effects  produced  l)y  eating  unripe  fruit,  more 
especially  in  the  case  of  young  children  ;  and  upon 
the  means  that  should  be  adopted  to  afford  relief  when 
such  injury  is  sustained. 


CHAPTER  III. 


INJURIOrS  EFFECTS  OF  UN  RIFE  FEIHTS. 


UNRIPE  FEUITS  INJURIOUS. 


141 


Fruits  of  all  kinds  are  most  frequently  gathered  be- 
fore they  are  ripe,  as  in  such  case  they  preserve  a 
good  appearance  longer  than  they  do  when  they  are 
allowed  to  become  fully  ripe  before  they  are  plucked 
from  the  trees  or  vines.  All  the  soft  fruits  of  spring 
and  summer  do  not,  like  the  autumnal  fruits,  ripen 
weeks  after  they  are  gathered.  The  higli  temperature 
arrests  the  tendency  to  the  formation  of  sugar  and 
neutralizing  salts,  and  a  disposition  to  fermentation  en- 
sues, the  effect  of  which  is  that  the  fruits,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  condition,  are  unwholesome,  and  fre- 
quently produce  violent  irritation  of  the  bowels.  In 
the  ripening  of  flesliy  fruits  we  must  distinguish  two 
operations,  namely,  that  of  growth  and  development, 
and  that  of  ripening  itself  Fleshy  fruits,  and  several 
kinds  of  berries,  acquire,  while  ripening,  a  much  great- 
er proportion  of  sugar  than  they  contained  before  ma- 
turity, although  full  grown.  Hipe  fruits  have  not  an 
acid  taste,  because  they  contain  a  larger  quantity  of 
basis,  by  which  they  are  saturated,  and  not  because 
they  are  disguised  by  sugar." — 3fidder. 

Now,  to  make  up  the  deficiency  of  taste  and  flavor 
in  berries  purchased  in  cities,  and  to  render  them 
palatable,  sugar  must  be  added  to  cover  the  acid ;  but 
it  has  no  modifying  eflfect,  and  merely  disguises  the 
flavor  of  the  berries,  w^hether  they  are  raw  or  cooked. 
Fruits,  when  fully  ripe,  are  very  palatable  and  healthy, 
because  they  have  a  sufficiency  of  sugar  generated 
and  combined  with  other  qualities,  which  can  not  be 
imitated  nor  given  to  unripe  fruit.  Neither  can  the 
unwholesomeness  and  imparted  qualities  of  the  acids 
be  neutralized  in  the  stomach  of  a  delicate  person  by 


142 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


the  sugar  whicli  renders  tlie  fruit  palatable  ;  but,  on 
tlie  contrary,  it  forms  an  acid,  and  actually  increases 
tlie  proneness  to  derangement.  To  correct  this  effect, 
a  neutralizing  dose  of  supercarbonate  of  soda  or  other 
alkali  has  to  be  taken,  and  thus  physic  is  substituted 
for  wholesome  food. 

One  of  the  most  prolific  causes  of  the  fatality  of 
children  in  our  cities  arises  from  their  being,  when 
only  about  a  year  old,  usually  supplied  liberally  with 
fruit.  The  very  delicate  state  of  the  stomach  at  that 
age  is  such  that  it  is  as  yet  only  capable  of  digesting 
the  most  bland  of  food  ;  consequently  a  more  nutri- 
tious organized  substance  should  be  furnished  to  sup- 
port the  rapidly  increasing  development  of  the  body. 
A  moment's  thought  must  convince  us  that  the  effect  of 
the  acrid  acids  of  imripe  fruit  upon  so  delicate  an  organ 
as  tlie  stomach  of  an  infant  must  be  to  produce  a  most 
painful  and  serious  derangement  of  the  whole  digestive 
apparatus.  This  acerb,  pungent  food  is  passed  to  the 
intestines,  where  morbid  secretions  of  an  exceedingly 
irritating  character  are  elaborated  ;  and  if,  after  the 
abnormal  condition  has  been  produced,  the  child  is 
]3ermitted  to  continue  eating  unripe  fruit  for  a  time, 
chalk  mixtures  or  soothing-sirups  will  but  seldom 
afford  permanent  relief.  Those  medicines  only  palli- 
ate, by  neutralizing  the  acid  and  quieting  the  nervous 
irritation.  They  will  not  restore  the  wonted  normal 
functions  of  the  organs  affected,  and,  therefore,  a  tend- 
ency to  form  the  irritating  secretions  will  remain, 
unless  great  care  is  taken  to  give  the  child  a  gentle, 
nourishing  diet,  and  to  avoid  the  use  of  any  kind  of 
food  that  conduces  to  acidity,  as,  for  instance,  sweet- 


UNRIPE  FRUITS  INJURIOUS. 


143 


ening  in  any  form.  In  addition,  strenuons  efforts 
should  be  made  to  invigorate  the  system,  so  that  the 
.healthy  functions  may  again  be  established  ;  and 
nothing  will  probably  conduce  more  to  the  attain- 
ment of  this  desirable  object  than  a  bracing  atmos- 
phere. At  the  same  time,  care  must  be  taketi  to 
protect  the  skin  from  being  chilled,  and  the  blood 
from  being  thrown  back  in  excess  upon  the  vital 
organs.  This  would  distend  the  larger  blood-vessels, 
and  make  a  serious  impression  upon  the  heart,  and 
perhaps  cause  disease  of  that  organ.  Therefore,  sud- 
den changes  of  temperature  should  be  most  carefully 
guarded  against,  by  the  wearing  of  clothing  adapted 
to  meet  the  variations  of  the  weather. 

Many  of  the  ailments  of  children  may  be  attributed 
to  eating  acrid,  irritating  food,  owing  to  its  producing 
derangement  of  tlie  nervous  system,  which  often  ter- 
minates in  partial  paralysis  and  deplorable  cases  of 
deformity.  And  here  we  would  draw  the  attention 
of  parents  to  the  means,  by  a  careful  and  proper  treat- 
ment, of  preventing  deformity  under  such  circum- 
stances. 

"When  these  seizures  of  paralysis  take  place  in 
young  subjects,  whatever  may  be  the  cause,  there 
exists  a  tendency  to  a  restoration  of  poAver,  especially, 
in  the  larger  muscles,  which  present  the  first  indica- 
tions of  returning  activity.  And  as  there  is  not  a  cor- 
responding counteracting  force  in  the  opposing  smaller 
muscles  to  produce  a  balance  of  action,  the  limbs  are 
distorted  in  direct  ratio  to  the  increased  power  of  the 
larger  muscles.  Let  this  diversity  of  action  take 
place,  for  instance,  in  the  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the 


144 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


leg,  and  the  result  is  an  inability  to  raise  the  front 
of  the  foot  when  an  effort  is  made  to  walk ;  the  con- 
sequence of  vv^hich  is,  that  the  foot  will  turn  inward 
or  outward,  and  the  patient  will  eventually  walk  on 
the  inner  or  outer  ankle.  The  contraction  of  the 
stronger  muscles  keeps  those  in  front  of  the  leg  and 
foot  constantly  extended  ;  even  the  bed-clothes,  when 
the  patient  is  in  bed,  contribute  by  their  weight  to 
keep  the  front  of  the  foot  extended.  From  this  con- 
stant extension  and  want  of  action,  the  body  of  the 
muscles  is  absorbed,  the  foot  is  fixed  in  its  abnormal 
position,  and  the  limbs  become  emaciated  to  mere 
skin  and  bone.  When  the  limbs  have  been  thus  de- 
formed, the  most  ready  cure  is  made  by  dividing  the 
tendons  of  the  contracted  muscles ;  after  which  opera- 
tion there  should  be  applied  a  skillfully  constructed 
apparatus  made  of  light  steel,  and  so  contrived  that 
by  its  aid  the  limbs  can  be  brought  gradually  to  their 
natural  position,  and  the  extended  muscles  relieved. 
In  a  majority  of  cases  the  latter  will  recover  their 
lost  tone.  Much  assistance  may  also  be  derived  from 
a  judicious  use  of  atmospheric  electricity     but  it  must 

*  On  the  opposite  page  is  given  a  diagram,  in  wliicli  is  repre- 
sented a  macliine  for  obtaining  electricity  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  manner  of  applying  it  to  local  parts  of  the  body.  The  upper 
balls,  marked  A  and  b,  do  not  quite  approximate,  but  have  a  space 
between  them,  which  space  can  be  increased  or  decreased  by  draw- 
ing the  rod  connecting  b  and  c  through  the  central  ball.  By  in- 
creasing the  space  between  A  and  B,  the  shock  can  be  intensified 
to  any  desired  degree.  If  the  Ley  den  jar  (d)  and  the  cord  attached 
to  it  (e)  are  removed,  and  the  upper  cord  (f)  kept  applied  to  a  per- 
son sitting  on  the  table  (g),  the  patient  will  be  surcharged  with 
electricity,  the  table  beinof  insulated  by  means  of  glass  lep;s.  On 


UNRIPE  FKUITS  INJURIOUS. 


145 


not  be  employed  wliile  the  limbs  are  contracted,  as 
it  would  impair  the  nervous  energy  remaining  in  the 
distended  muscles  and  increase  tlie  energy  in  the  con- 
tracted ones.  A  similar  etfect  would  be  produced  by 
sea-bathing,  liniments,  etc.  It  will  be  admitted  that 
prevention  is  better  than  cure.  The  timely  applica- 
tion of  properly  constructed  apparatus  will  not  only 
prevent  deformity  from  taking  place  in  cases  of  par- 
alysis, but  it  will  contribute  to  the  restoration  of 
power,  as  such  apparatus  maintains  tlie  paralyzed 
limbs  in  a  normal  position,  and  enables  the  patient 
to  make  exertions  to  move.  Motion,  when  made  by 
the  efforts  of  the  patient,  contributes  largely  to  the 
cure  ;  but  passive  motion,  on  being  applied,  fails  to 
secure  the  determined  efforts  of  the  will,  and,  conse- 
quently, is  not  as  reliable  as  that  motion  which  ema- 
nates from  the  j^atient's  own  exertions. 

tlie  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  page  will  be  found  representa- 
tions of  several  instruments  used  in  the  application  of  electricity : 
H  has  a  handle  and  a  curved  metallic  stem,  with  a  circular  metallic 
brush  attached  to  the  end,  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  off 
electricity  from  a  part  where  it  is  necessary  to  relieve  pain  or  in- 
flammation ;  I  has  a  handle  supporting  a  glass  tube  with  a  wire 
passing  through  it,  and  is  used  for  applying  electricity  to  internal 
parts  ;  j  is  a  glass  tube  prepared  as  a  Ley  den  jar,  and  gives  a  much 
softer  shock  than  the  jar,  when  applied  to  the  machine  in*  its  stead  ; 
K  has  a  handle  and  curved  metallic  stem,  and  is  intended  for  draw- 
ing off  electricity,  either  silently  or  in  sparks,  the  latter  mode  being 
very  stimulating  when  the  electricity  is  drawn  off  in  rapid  succes- 
sion from  a  very  limited  portion  of  the  body ;  L  is  called  a  dis- 
charger, and  has  a  handle  surmounted  by  two  curved  metallic 
stems  with  metallic  balls  at  their  ends,  which  balls  can  be  suffi- 
ciently separated  to  admit  of  one  being  applied  to  the  body  of  the 
Ley  den  jar  and  the  other  to  the  ball  at  its  top,  and  thereby  any 
electricity  that  the  jar  may  contain  is  discharged. 


CHAPTER  lY. 


PERNICIOUS  EFFECTS  OF  STALE  MEAT  AND  VEGETABLES — ■ 
NUTRIMENT  OBTAINED  FROM  FISH  AND  FLESH-MEAT. 

Stale  meat  and  vegetables  very  detrimental  to  tlie  liuman  system 
— Analysis  of  meat — Nutritious  qualities  of  fisli  investigated  and 
determined  by  comparative  density. 


TALE,  or  partially  decomposed,  vegetables  and 


kJ/  meats  are  alike  the  source  of  serions  evils  to  the 
human  system.  In  stale  meats  we  have  not  the  irri- 
tating acids  to  excite  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  but  they  create  a  more  insidious 
deraugement,  which  tends  to  chronic  disease,  and  en- 
feebles the  constitution  and  predisposes  it  to  scrofula. 
When  vegetables  become  wilted,  there  is  a  concentra- 
tion of  their  juices,  and  a  consequent  chemical  change, 
which  is  very  perceptible  from  their  loss  of  palatable 
flavor,  the  taste  being  very  different  from  that  of 
freshly  gathered  vegetables,  such  as  peas,  green  corn, 
and  lettuce,  and,  in  a  word,  the  whole  catalogue  of 
vegetables  supplied  by  the  markets  in  the  spring, 
summer,  and  autumn.  This  fact  should  induce  all 
persons  to  make  at  least  an  effort  to  correct  the  impo- 
sition practiced  upon  them  by  the  venders  of  stale 
vegetables  ;  and  the  best  way  to  accomplish  it  would 
be  to  encourage  the  gardeners  by  purchasing  from 


STALE  MEAT  AND  VEGETABLES.  14? 


them,  and  them  alone,  the  freslily  gathered  products 
Avhicli  they  bring  daily  to  our  cities.  A  similar  course 
would  be  advisable  in  tlie  purchase  of  tender  fruits. 

Decomposing  animal  substances  vary  very  mnch  in 
their  injurious  effects  upon  the  system,  and  in  degree 
to  the  efficacy  of  the  digestive  powers.  If  eaten  con- 
tinuously for  a  time,  they  will  prove  seriously  de- 
structive from  engendering  morbid  secretions.  Fi- 
brous meats,  whether  salted  or  not,  if  tainted,  are 
decidedly  detrimental  to  health.  Fish,  and  shell  fish, 
if  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  which  readily  takes 
place  and  is  not  always  detected,  are  also  injurious. 
The  effect  is  often  immediately  felt  in  the  stomach, 
and  the  foul  matter  thrown  off,  thus  relieving  the  sys- 
tem from  a  more  permanent  injury.  But  if  the  matter 
is  not  ejected,  a  rash  supervenes  about  the  neck  and 
face,  and  delirium  and  death  sometimes  ensue. 

Ordinary  meats  or  flesh  have  a  very  great  uniformity 
in  their  composition,  which  consists  of  fibrin,  albumen, 
and  fat.    The  relative  proportions  are  as  follow : 

Ordinary  lean  beef :  Fibrin,  1  7-70  ., 

Albumen,   2-2 

Salts,   1-13 

Water,   7717 

Acids  and  other  matters,  IS 

in  100  parts. 

Into  the  nutritive  qualities  of  fish,  as  compared 
with  other  animal  flesh,  there  has  been  but  a  very 
limited  investigation.  The  flesh  of  fish  is  not  so 
highly  colored  as  that  of  some  qnadrupeds  used  as  food 
for  man  ;  hence  it  does  not  contain  so  much  iron  as 
beef  or  mutton,  but,  like  pork,  it  contains  much  oil. 


148 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


Fisli  predisposes  to  disease  of  the  skin,  and,  if  fried 
brown,  is  very  indigestible,  owing  to  the  formation  of 
a  chemical  product  of  a  most  acrid  nature.  Boiled 
fresh  fish  is  comparatively  light  and  easy  of  digestion. 
Salt  fish  is  also  light  and  easily  digested,  if  it  does  not 
contain  much  oil  and  is  finely  comminuted.  When 
fish  that  contain  much  oil,  as  shad,  herring,  and  mac- 
kerel, are  salted,  the  oil  absorbs  oxygen,  and  peculiar 
acrid  acids  are  formed  that  seriously  aff'ect  delicate 
stomachs.  The  oil  of  fresh  fish  is  easily  digested,  and 
to  a  considerable  amount,  even  by  very  delicate  per- 
sons. Consumptive  patients  take  a  table- spoonful 
morning,  noon,  and  night  w^th  most  beneficial  effects. 
Cod-liver  oil  is  given  to  very  delicate  cliildren,  and 
generally  agrees  with  their  stomachs. 

The  comparative  density  of  the  flesh  of  some  of  our 
common  fish  with  that  of  other  flesh  has  been  investi- 
gated by  Dr.  John  Davy,  who  reported  the  results  to 
the  Royal  Society,  Edinburgh.  The  task  was  under- 
taken under  the  supposition  that  density  indicated 
the  nutritive  quality  of  muscular  fibre,  and  elicited 


the  following  facts : 

Specific  If^l^r^^ 

^^'^^'^'y-  Mattel 

Haddock  1056  20.2 

Hake  1054  17.4 

Pollock  1060  19.3 

Whiting  1062  21.5 

Cod-fisli  1059  19.2 

Beef,  Sirloin  1078  26.9 

Veal,  loin  1076  27.2 

Mutton,  leg:  1069  26.5 


a^^^.fi^  Per  cent 

Specific  fg^.^ 

^^•^^^^y-  Matter. 

Mackerel  1093  37.9 

Salmon  1071  29.4 

Trout....  1053  to  1063  22.5 

Smelt  1060  19.3 

Eel  1034  33.6 

Pork,  loin  1080  30.5 

Com'n  Fowl,  br'stl075  27.2 

Gray  Plover,   "   1072  30.1 


These  results,"  says  Dr.  Davy,  "  I  wish  to  have 
considered  merely  as  approximate  ones." 


THE  BEST  MODES  OF  COOKING  MEAT. 


149 


Here  it  will  be  observ^ed  that  the  salmon,  mackerel, 
and  eel,  contain  more  nutrition  or  solid  matter  than 
beef ;  and  that  the  specific  gravity  of  salmon  is  greater 
than  that  of  mutton.  This  is  worthy  of  notice,  as  in- 
dicative of  a  nutritive  quality. 


THE    MOST    NUTRITIOUS    FOOD    OF    MAN,   AND   THE  BEST 


The  several  modes  of  cooking  meat — Its  nutritious  qualities,  and 
the  methods  by  which  it  is  rendered  most  digestible — How  to 
prepare  meats  for  invalids — Milk  and  eggs :  their  nutritious 
qualities — The  composition  of  milk. 

jj^LESTI  meat  is  the  richest  in  nitrogenized  mate- 


1  rial,  as  we  shall  hereafter  very  fully  describe 
in  this  work.  This  fact  will,  however,  now  be  re- 
ferred to  in  relation  to  the  preparation  of  food. 

No  food  with  which  we  are  acquainted  varies  so 
much  in  its  quality,  from  the  various  modes  of  cook- 
ing, as  meat.  Properly  broiling  is  supposed  to  be  the 
best  mode  of  cooking  it,  as  by  that  process  most  of 
the  juice  is  retained.  In  boiling,  if  soup  is  to  be  made, 
the  meat  should  be  put  into  cold  water  and  gradually 
heated.  But  when  it  is  merely  desired  to  boil  the 
meat,  it  should  be  placed  in  a  small  portion  of  boiling 
salt  water,  in  which  it  must  be  cooked,  as  then  we 
retain  the  nutriment  in  the  meat  by  coagulating  the 
albamen.    All  salted  meats  have  the  albumen  coagu- 


CHAPTEE  V. 


WAYS  OE'  PEEPAEING  IT. 


160 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


lated,  and  therefore  are  not  so  easily  digested  as  fresh 
meats  when  properly  cooked. 

The  elemental  snbstance  known  as  nitroo;en  is  found 
abundantly  in  vegetables;  but  it  is  only  recently  that 
chemists  have  determined  the  fact  of  the  similarity  of 
vegetable  nitrogenous  compounds  to  animal  fibre  or 
flesh.  The  various  substances  containin^j^  nitroo^en 
are  all  modifications  of  a  principle,  called  by  its  dis- 
coverer, Mulder,  protein^  a  word  derived  from  the 
Greek,  and  meaning  literally,  ^'I  am  first."  It  has 
the  following  compositions : 

Nitrogen,  5. 
Oxygen,  12. 
Hydrogen,  31. 
Carbon,  40. 

This  substance  is  the  basis  of  tlie  three  pi-inciples 
called  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein,  which  we  have  fre- 
quently alluded  to  in  describing  both  vegetable  and 
animal  compounds.  Meat-flesh  of  all  kinds,  whether 
cooked  or  raw,  contains  the  largest  possible  amount 
of  protein,  and  aff*ords  the  most  nourishment,  in  a 
given  quantity.  Therefore  protein  may  be  considered 
as  the  nutritious  principle  in  food ;  and  meat-flesh 
must  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  food  for  man. 
It  is  well  known  that  that  flesh  has  been  the  main 
reliance  of  man,  as  food,  in  his  most  primitive  state. 
The  savage  lives  almost  exclusively  on  animal  flesh, 
the  greater  portion  being  dried  and  salted,  in  which 
condition  it  is  not  very  soluble  but  affbrds  the  greatest 
amount  of  nutriment. 

The  best  methods  of  preparing  flesh-meat  for  the 


THE  BEST  MODES  OF  COOKING  MEAT. 


151 


diet  of  invalids  are  the  following :  Lean  meat  from  a 
full-grown,  healthy  young  animal,  soaked  in  cold 
water,  (but  not  cooked,)  yields  the  most  nourishment 
in  a  given  quantity,  and  is  the  most  digestible  form 
in  which  meat  can  be  prepared.  The  next  best  mode 
of  preparation  is  to  fill  a  bottle  with  similar  meat- 
beef  probably  being  the  best.  No  w^ater  must  be 
added.  Cork  the  bottle,  and  then  place  it  in  a  kettle 
of  water,  and  let  boil  until  the  meat  is  cooked.  The 
second  is  a  more  palatable  preparation  than  the  first, 
and  is  not  so  disgusting  to  a  patient.  But  as  in  the 
second  the  juices  are  all  retained  in  a  concentrated 
form,  discretion  must  be  exercised  as  to  the  quantity 
to  be  given  and  the  condition  of  the  patient's  diges- 
tive powers.  The  quantity  of  either  preparation 
should  be  prescribed  by  a  skillful  physician,  more 
especially  as  such  very  nutritious  diet  is  only  required 
in  extreme  cases  of  debility. 

Milk  and  eggs  stand  next  in  the  scale  of  nutritious 
diet.  Milk  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  natural  articles 
of  food,  and  comes  nearer  fulfilling  all  the  conditions 
of  a  perfect  diet  than  any  other  single  substance.  It 
is  the  food  of  the  young  of  the  most  important  class 
in  the  animal  kingdom,  (the  mammalia,)  for  some 
period  of  its  early  life.  It  also  enters  largely  into 
the  diet  of  man.  The  composition  of  milk  is  by  no 
means  uniform,  but  in  different  animals  varies  greatly 
in  the  proportion  of  its  constituents.  It  contains  repre- 
sentatives of  all  classes  of  food.  Taking  the  milk  of 
the  cow  for  an  example,  we  find  in  it  about  3  per 
cent  of  sugar,  (carbon  12,  hydrogen  12,  oxygen  12,) 
which  is  a  representative  of  carho hydrate  compounds, 


152 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


as  starch  and  sugar,  that  have  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
in  proportions  to  form  water.    We  also  find  about 

4  per  cent  of  butter,  composed  of  several  fatty  bodies 
belonging  to  the  second  class,  or  liydrocarhonous^  com- 
ponents, as  oils,  fats,  alcohol,  etc.,  that  contain  hydro- 
gen in  excess  over  oxygen.  Casein,  an  albuminous 
compound  of  the  third  class,  is  found  to  the  amount  of 

5  per  cent.  Of  salts  there  is  about  2  per  cent,  vary- 
ing to  even  less  than  1  per  cent.  In  this  material, 
then,  we  have  all  the  elements  of  nutrition. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

MILK  AND  BUTTER  :   THEIR  PROPERTIES  AND  PRESERVA- 
TION. 

The  properties  of  milk  under  various  circumstances — Milk  well 
adapted  to  nourish  the  young,  but  not  sufficient  food  for  adults — 
Human  milk  compared  with  that  of  various  animals — Cream  as 
a  diet — Butter  and  its  component  parts — Cheese  only  fit  food  for 
hearty  laborers  —  Means  of  preserving  milk,  and  the  several 
methods  of  doing  so — Various  modes  of  preserving  butter. 

MILK  is  a  white,  opaque  liquid,  witli  a  slight 
odor  and  sweet  taste.  Its  density  is  greater 
than  that  of  water,  being  1.036.  Fresh  milk  is  always 
»  alkaline  from  the  presence  of  soda.  By  leaving  it 
standing  for  some  time,  it  separates  slowly  and  imper- 
fectly into  two  portions.  The  superior  portion  is  the 
cream,  which  is  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  unctuous, 
and  pleasant  to  the  taste.    Tlie  lower  portion  is  of  a 


MILK  AND  BUTTER. 


153 


bluish  wliite  color :  it  is  called  serum^  and  is  a  little 
more  dense  than  the  creani.  Both  portions  are  so 
nearly  of  the  same  specific  gravity  that  they  scarcely 
ever  perfectly  separate,  more  or  less  cream  being  con* 
tained  in  skimmed  milk  or  serum. 

By  long  standing,  the  milk  no  longer  remains  alka- 
line, but  becomes  acid.  This  is  lactic  acid,  which  is 
produced  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  sugar.  Sugar  is, 
carbon  12,  hydrogen  12,  oxygen  12;  this  is  simply 
divided,  making  two  atoms  of  lactic  acid,  (being,  car- 
bon 6,  hydrogen  6,  and  oxygen  6.)  This  lactic  acid 
unites  with  tlie  soda  and  neutralizes  it,  when  the 
casein  which  was  combined  w^ith  the  soda  is  set  free 
and  coagulates,  and  thus  forms  what  is  called  claljhered 
milk.  Tlie  action  of  the  air  on  the  Casein  changes  it; 
and  a  ferment  being  thus  produced,  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  sugar  takes  place.  If  the  air  is  excluded, 
these  changes  will  operate  very  slowly. 

The  cream  is  made  up  of  innumerable  small  spheri- 
cal cells,  aoVo  to  73^00  of  \\\^\\  iu  diameter.  They 
consist  of  butter  inclosed  in  an  envelope.  When  this 
envelope  is  dissolved  by  the  lactic  acid,  with  the  aid 
of  agitation,  (churning,)  the  particles  coalesce  and 
form  butter  in  a  mass. 

Of  good  cow's  milk,  the  component  parts  of  which 
are  given  in  the  next  page,  about  three  gallons  vv^ill 
make  one  pound  of  butter — ordinary  milk  will  not 
give  so  favorable  a  result. 

The  salts  contained  in  milk  are  : 

Phosphate  of  lime.  Chloride  of  potassium, 

Phosphate  of  magnesia,  Chloride  of  sodium,  and 
Phosphate  of  iron,  Free  soda. 


.154 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


Although  milk  is  well  adapted  to  the  nourishment 
of  the  young,  it  is  not  suited  to  the  perfect  nutrition 
of  the  adult ;  because  it  does  not  afford  nitrogenized 
material  enough  for  the  active  service  of  adult  life. 
Those  animals  whose  young  are  enabled  to  run  about 
almost  as  soon  as  born,  yield  more  casein  in  their  milk 
than  is  afforded  by  those  whose  young  remain  help- 
less for  a  greater  or  less  length  of  time. 

The  following  are  the  component  parts  of  human 
milk,  and  of  that  of  each  of  the  animals  named  : 


Milk. 

Casein. 

Sugar. 

Butter. 

Water. 

Salts. 

Total. 

Human, 

1.80 

6.50 

8.10 

87.98 

0.62 

.  100 

Goat, 

4.55 

4.80 

3.32 

86.80 

0.53 

100 

Cow, 

4.48 

3.77 

4.00 

87.02 

0.73 

100 

Sheep, 

4.50 

5.00 

4.2g 

85.80 

0.50 

100 

This  shows  above  double  the  quantity  of  casein  and 
less  sugar  in  the  milk  of  tlie  cow  than  are  found 
in  human  milk.  Hence  the  necessity,  when  young 
children  are  fed  on  cow's  milk,  of  adding  an  equal 
bulk  of  water,  and  of  sweetening  it."^  These  additions 
make  it  nearly  like  a  child's  natural  food  ;  and  it  is 
nearer  still  if  the  milk  used  is  taken  immediately  from 
the  cow.  The  longer  the  milk  stands,  if  it  is  not  con- 
fined from  the  air,  the  more  injurious  it  is  to  the  child. 
To  render  cow's  milk,  where  it  has  to  be  kept  for  any 
length  of  time  within  forty-eight  hours,  wholesome 
food  for  a  babe,  it  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  and 
in  a  jug  stopped  air  tight ;  and  previous  to  every  re- 
petition of  filling  the  jug,  it  should  be  cleansed  with 
boiling  water  containing  a  small  portion  of  potash  or 
soda,,  and  then  cooled.    When  the  milk  is  u^ed,  warm 


*  Darby's  (yhemistry,  p.  382. 


MILK  AND  BUTTER. 


155 


water  can  be  addecl  to  it,  in  order  to  make  it  agreea- 
ble to  the  child.  The  same  precautions,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  adding  water,  are  essentially  necessary  when 
milk  is  intended  as  food  for  an  invalid  adult ;  for,  as 
we  have  jnst^remarked,  a  very  decided  chemical  change 
takes  place  in  milk  when  it  is  left  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere. In  such  case,  its  tendency  will  be  to  gen- 
erate an  acid  in  the  stomach  of  persons  so  predisposed, 
and  thus  to  produce  serions  inconvenience,  as  flatnlency 
and  even  irritative  fever. 

Cream,  as  a  diet,  is  very  nutritious  and  easy  of  di- 
gestion. If  eaten  fresh,  with  wheaten  bread,  it  is  con- 
sidered an  excellent  article  of  diet,  and  similar  to  fresh 
butter  and  bread,  which  is  a  very  wholesome  food. 

Butter  when  analyzed  consists  of  six  acids.  Buty- 
Tin  gives  to  butter  its  agreeable  odor  and  flavor. 
Several  of  the  acids  have  a  volatile  tendency,  and 
their  evaporation  leaves  the  butter  rancid,  and  im- 
parts to  it  a  disagreeable  smell.  Caproio  acid  has  a 
sweet  and  agreeable  odor  ;  while  eapric  has  quite 
the  contrary.  The  change  takes  place  in  butter  when 
it  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  this  is  owing  jto 
its  absorbing  oxygen  rapidly,  like  other  fats.  When 
butter  has  become  rancid,  it  is  not  only  offensive,  but 
v^ery  injurious  to  digestion,  especially  when  eaten  with 
hot  articles  of  food,  or  preparations  of  sugar,  sirups, 
etc.  ;  f  )r  the  most  acrid  acids  are  thereby  generated 
in  the  stomachs  of  enfeebled  persons,  with  a  direct 
tendency  to  form  bilious  secretions. 

Cheese  is  nutritious,  as  it  consists  of  casein  in  com- 
bination with  rancid  butter,  which  it  contains  largely  ; 
and  it  is  thus  rendered  indigestible  to  weak  stomachs. 


156 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


It  is  a  suitable  food  only  for  hearty  laboring  persons, 
or  those  who  exercise  freely  in  tlie  open  air. 

To  preserve  milk  for  various  purposes,  as  for  use  on 
long  voyages  at  sea  and  in  hospitals  and  places  where 
fresh  milk  can  not  be  readily  obtained,  many  methods 
have  been  tried  but  found  objectionable.  About  the 
year  1849,  a  discovery  was  made  in  France  by  Bra- 
CONNET,  Grimaud,  and  others,  under  wiiich  it  was  at- 
tempted, on  a  large  scale,  to  evaporate  milk  with 
sugar,  and  turn  it  into  sirup  or  a  paste  ;  but  the  pro- 
cess proved  a  failure.  Lignac,  of  that  country,  how- 
ever, succeeded  in  making  what  he  called  his  conserve 
of  milh^  which  was  exhibited  at  the  French  Exhibi- 
tion in  1849,  where  it  drew  the  attention  of  the  exam- 
ining judges,  who  decreed  the  silver  medal  to  the  ex- 
hibitor. LiGNAc's  process  is  to  add  to  a  quart  of  milk, 
fresh  from  the  cow,  3f  oz.  of  sugar,  and  then  to  evap- 
orate it  to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  sirup.  About 
60  per  cent  of  the  water  passes  off  in  this  way.  It  is 
evaporated  in  large  flat  pans,  the  depth  of  the  milk 
not  exceeding  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  The  pans 
are  warmed  by  being  set  in  warm  water,  which  is 
then  made  hot.  During  the  process  of  evaporation 
the  milk  is  constantly  stirred  with  a  wooden  spoon,  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  a  scum  ;  and  after  the  evap- 
oration the  residuum  is  filled  into  cylindrical  tin  boxes, 
which  are  next  soldered,  and  then  exposed  for  thirty 
minutes  to  a  water  bath  at  a  temperature  of  45^  of 
Fahrenheit.  This  temperature  is  obtained  by  adding 
to  the  water  in  the  bath  6|  ounces  of  salt  and  as  much 
sirup  for  every  quart  of  milk  contained  in  the  cans. 

When  this  conserve  of  milk  is  to  be  used,  it  is  only 


MILK  AKD  BUTTER. 


157 


necessary  to  dissolve  it  in  the  same  quantity  of  watef 
that  it  has  lost  by  evaporation.  A  fluid  is  thus  formed 
which  has  all  the  properties  of  fresh  milk,  and  v^hich, 
like  it,  foams  when  boiled,  and  is  said  to  secrete  cream 
Avhen  at  rest.  After  a  box  is  opened,  the  evaporated 
milk  it  contains  w^ill  remain  unchanged  for  at  least 
fourteen  days,  and  even  for  a  longer  time,  especially 
if  the  precaution  is  taken,  after  removing  the  quantity 
required  for  use,  to  replace  the  surface  or  skin  over 
wdiat  is  left. 

The  latest  improvement  in  condensing  milk  consists 
in  the  employment  of  the  air-pump,  by  which  means 
the  milk  is  protected  from  the  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere or  excessive  lieat — a  most  decided  advance 
upon  all  other  metliods  of  a  like  nature. 

Butter  can  be  preserved  from  rancidity  for  months, 
by  means  of  salt  dissolved  and  kept  over  it  in  well- 
made  casks.  But  salt  destroys  the  agreeable  flavor 
by  wliicli  fresh  butter  is  distinguished,  and  by  its  use 
there  is  an  actual  loss  of  some  of  the  good  qualities 
that  render  fresh  butter  easy  of  digestion. 

To  preserve  the  sw^eetness  and  flavor  of  fresh  butter, 
various  experiments  have  been  tried,  and  the  greatest 
success  has  been  obtained  bv  addins;  to  tlie  salt  em- 
ployed  in  the  process  of  its  manufacture  one  tliird 
or  one  fourth  part  of  sugar.  Butter  thus  prepared 
can  be  kept  for  a  period  of  eight  or  twelve  days, 
if  packed  solidly  in  small  tubs,  and  the  surface 
covered  an  inch  in  depth  with  water,  having  about 
flfty-six  grains  of  sulphate  of  potash,  or  about  the 
same  quantity  of  pure  vinegar,  dissolved  in  the  water. 
If  the  butter  is  to  be  sent  away,  place  it  in  a  tin 


158 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


cylinder  with  the  023ening  soldered  up.  For  common 
purposes,  glass  or  eartlien  vessels,  kept  well  closed, 
are  tlie  best  and  most  convenient.  When  thus 
packed,  butter  may  be  kept  for  three  months,  pro- 
vided it  is  kept  cool,  at  about  40*^  Fahrenheit. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

NUTIUTIVE    QUALrriES   OF  EGGS. 

The  peculiarities  and  properties  of  eggs  and  tlieir  nutritious  quali- 
ties—Deleterious effect  produced  by  eating  stale  eggs. 

THE  component  parts  of  eggs,  the  food  of  the 
young  of  those  animals  that  do  not  secrete 
milk,  are  protected  within  a  shell  formed  of  the  car- 
bonate of  lime.  In  the  process  of  the  growth  of 
birds,  previous  to  their  being  hatched,  air  enters 
through  the  pores  of  the  shell  and  unites  with  the 
phosphorus  contained  in  the  yolk.  And  thus  is 
formed  phosphoric  acid,  which  dissolves  a  portion  of 
the  shell,  and  renders  it  easy  for  the  young  to  burst 
when  they  are  fully  developed. 

The  white  of  the  egg  is  chiefly  albumen  in  a  state 
of  solution — 15.5  of  albumen  in  about  80  parts  of 
water,  and  a  little  mucus  and  other  matters.  It  also 
contains  varied  quantities  of  oleate  and  margarate  of 
soda,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen  ;  and  coagu- 
lates readily  by  heat  or  alcohol.  As  food  for  man  it 
is  very  nutritious,  and  principally  forms  animal  fibre  ; 


NUTRITIYE  QUALITIES  OF  EGGS. 


but  it  is  Iiard  to  digest  when  firmly  coagulated.  The 
vital  centre  of  the  egg — the  yolk — contains  more 
solid  matter  than  tlie  white.  It  consists  of  io  per 
cent  of  albumen  and  casein,  and  about  30  per  cent 
of  fat  in  the  form  of  margarin  and  olin.  The  yolk 
when  eaten  is  more  readily  digested  than  the  white, 
and  affords  more  carbonaceous  or  heat-giving  mate- 
rial. The  coloring  matter  of  the  yolk  consists  of  iron. 
The  fat  globules  are  similar  to  cream.  A  nitrogenous 
substance  is  found  in  the  yolk,  which  substance  con- 
sists of  small  quantities  of  nitrogen  and  phosphorus, 
and  is  known  as  cerehrin.  There  is  a  great  similar- 
ity between  the  formation  of  the  salts  in  tlie  yolk  of 
an  egg  and  those  in  the  blood  of  animals.  In  a 
word,  we  have  in  the  egg  all  the  compounds  of 
elemental  substances  that  constitute  the  organized 
animal  body. 

Stale  eggs  are  very  pernicious  as  a  diet,  as  they 
contain  sulphur  and  hydrogenous  compounds,  and 
readily  form  sulphurated  hydrogen,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  poisonous  gases  known  to  jchemists.  When 
formed  in  the  stomachy  it  produces  the  most  distress- 
ing colic,  and  the  flatulent  wind  which  is  consequent- 
ly expelled  is  of  the  most  foul  sulphurous  stench. 
Every  precaution  should  therefore  be  taken  to  avoid 
eating  eggs  that  have  been  kept  long. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  NATURAL  FOOD  FOK  INFANTS,  AND  ITS  SUBSTITUTE. 

Tlie  primary  growth  and  development  of  the  babe,  and  its  proper 
nourishment — Advice  to  mothers  who  are  unable  to  suckle  their 
olFspring — The  milk  that  should  be  selected — Eegulations  to  be 
observed  in  nursing — Influences  that  tend  to  vitiate  human  milk 
— Afflictions  caused  thereby,  and  their  proper  treatment — Means 
to  be  adopted  for  the  sustenance  of  infants  whose  mothers  are 
unable  to  suckle  them. 

THE  nourishment  for  the  young  child  is  the  pri- 
mary formation  of  stamina  for  the  adult,  and  is 
the  natural  process  by  which  tlie  organic  development 
and  strength  of  man  is  promoted.  This  process  is  per- 
fect or  defective  in  proportion  to  the  state  of  the  indi- 
vidual's health,  and  to  the  food  that  is  partaken  of 
possessing  the  proper  nutriment. 

Milk,  regarded  as  the  nourishment  of  the  infant, 
forms  an  important  subject  oi  consideration  to  every 
one  who  takes  an  interest  in  the  health  and  well-being 
of  his  race.  When  taken  directly  from  the  mother 
or  nurse  into  the  stomach,  it  is  very  much  more  salu- 
tary to  the  child  than  milk  that  has  been  exposed  to 
the  atmospheric  air ;  for,  upon  such  exposure,  it  al- 
most instantaneously  changes  from  its  normal  condi- 
tion, like  blood  that  has  been  drawn  and  left  to  stand 


THE  PROPER  FOOD  FOR  INFANTS. 


161 


for  a  few  moments.  It  is  true  that  milk  does  not  co- 
agulate in  so  short  a  time  as  blood  ;  yet  it  is  affected 
by  a  loss  proportionate  to  its  animalized  qualities.  It 
is,  consequently,  not  so  readily  assimilated,  and  thus, 
encroaching  upon  the  forces  of  the  system  to  prepare 
it  for  the  sustenance  of  the  body,  causes  a  loss  of  de- 
yelopment — a  notable  physiological  fact  that  ought  to 
be  heeded  in  the  selection  of  food  for  babes.  What- 
ever is  difficult  of  digestion  retards  development. 

When  mothers  are  unable  to  suckle  their  infants  or 
to  procure  a  suitable  nurse,  new  milk  should  be  se- 
lected that  most  nearly  agrees  with  human  milk  in 
constituents.  To  assist  in  making  the  selection,  we 
refer  to  page  154  for  a  table  of  the  comparative  con- 
stituents of  the  milk  of  animals  that  have  been  recom- 
mended. And,  though,  as  w^e  have  already  remarked, 
a  child  may  thrive  and  do  well  by  being  fed  upon 
good  fresh  cow's  milk,  diluted  and  sw^eetened,  still  the 
inquiry  is  often  made.  What  milk  approaches  nearest 
to  human  milk,  or  can  be  best  substituted  for  it  ? 
This  is  readily  answered  by  the  table  in  question.  In 
the  consideration  of  the  analyses  it  contains,  it  is  ne- 
cessary that  attention  should  be  paid,  first  to  the  quan- 
tity of  casein  w^hich  each  description  of  milk  contains 
— as  casein  is  essential  to  the  development  of  muscle 
and  vigor — and  then  to  the  relative  quantities  of  su- 
gar, butter,  and  water  ;  as  the  proportions  of  all  these 
constituents  require  to  be  regulated  in  the  preparation 
of  a  diet,  so  as  to  render  it  suitable  to  the  actual  phy- 
sical condition,  of  an  infant,  to  a  delicate,  robust,  or 
ordinary  condition  of  health. 

The  milk  of  the  mare  and  that  of  the  ass  approach 


162 


THE  CHEMISTKY  OF  FOOD. 


nearer  the  liuman  milk  than  any  of  those  we  have  com- 
pared, but  they  are  not  used  in  this  country.  Cow's 
milk  diluted  and  sweetened  is  very  suitable  for  a  heal- 
thy child ;  but,  for  one  that  is  much  emaciated  and 
feeble,  the  milk  of  the  goat  is  preferable,  as  it  con- 
tains so  much  more  casein  or  muscle-making  mate- 
rial. However,  goat's  milk  must  at  first  be  diluted 
with  two-third  parts  of  w^ater,  and  the  quantity  of  wa- 
ter must  be  lessened  as  the  cliild  increases  in  strengtlu 
In  order  to  avoid  acidity,  which  is  easily  produced  in 
a  weak  stomacli,  the  sweetening  of  milk  may  be  dis- 
pensed w^ith.  This  treatment  is  considered  suitable 
for  children  until  they  are  six  months  old,  when  they 
may  be  permitted  to  take  more  nutriment ;  but  the 
increase  should  be  gradual,  especially  if  a  tendency 
to  scrofula  is  observable. 

When  mothers  can  nurse  their  children,  they  should 
never  deviate  from  the  stated  periods  for  nursing,  as 
such  deviation  is  not  only  decidedly  injurious  to  the 
child,  by  depriving  it  of  its  necessary  nutriment — a 
well-determined  fact — but  it  also  leads  to  the  annoy- 
ance of  having  it  continually  fretting  for  the  breast. 

In  milking  a  cow,  that  portion  of  the  milk,  to  the 
amount  of  one  third,  which  comes  first,  will  give 
much  whey  and  very  little  butter ;  the  second  portion 
will  give  less  whey  and  more  butter  ;  and  the  last,  a  de- 
cidedly greater  quantity  of  butter  and  curd,  or  casein, 
than  either  of  the  others.  As  the  same  results  take 
place  in  human  milk,  the  fact  suggests  considerations 
of  importance  with  respect  to  the  suckling  of  infants. 

By  this  fact  it  is  obvious  that  if  a  mother  is  in  the 
habit  of  giving  the  breast  at  all  times  when  her  child 


THE  PROPER  FOOD  FOR  INFANTS. 


163 


is  restless,  she  will  not  only  encourage  its  disposition 
to  fret,  but  will  deprive  it  of  the  nutriment  it  ought 
to  receive.  Children  treated  thus  never  nurse  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  to  obtain  the  nutritious  j)art  of 
the  milk,  and  the  consequence  is,  tluit  they  only  get 
the  watery  portion.  Delicate  children,  who  are  the 
most  indulged  in  this  very  bad  habit,  are  most  fre- 
quently kept  feeble  for  the  want  of  proper  nutriment ; 
and  thus  it  is  that  goat's  milk  has  been  resorted 
to  for  such  children,  with  decided  advantages  in  some 
instances,  but  with  injury  in  others,  owing  to  their 
not  being  able  to  digest  it  properly.  There  are  in- 
numerable instances  in  which  it  would  have  been 
unnecessary  to  have  resorted  to  goat's  milt,  provided 
proper  regulations  had  been  observed  in  giving  the 
breast-miilk ;  for  then  the  children  would  have  derived 
fully  as  much  benefit  from  the  latter  alone  as  they 
gained  from  the  former ;  while  in  those  having  weak 
digestive  powers  it  would  have  been  far  more  bene- 
ficial to  them  if  they  had  only  taken  the  natural  ali- 
ment. All  that  was  wanting  was  the  exercise,  by  the 
mothers,  of  a  little  judgment  in  the  allowance  of  a 
sufficiency  of  tim.e  for  the  food  to  digest,  with  other 
considerations. 

The  constant  eating  of  palatable,  and,  most  com- 
monly, indigestible  food,  is  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  ailment  in  adults  who  complain  of  feebleness  and 
want  of  appetite  for  more  substantial  diet.  They  are 
in  a  similar  condition  to  that  of  the  feeble  babe  who 
is  indulged  with  the  breast  too  frequently,  with  the 
exception  that  the  child  has  the  advantage  of  one  of 
nature's  provisions — the  power  to  throw  off  the  exces- 


164 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


sive  quantity,  and  thus  be  saved  from  injury.  But 
when  children  are  thus  over-indulged,  they  not  unfre- 
quently  throw  off  nearly  the  whole  contents  of  the  stom- 
ach, and  the  consequence  is,  that  little  is  left  to  digest. 
They  thereby  become  enfeebled  and  exhibit  a  ten- 
dency to  an  irritable  condition  of  the  glandular  tissues 
and  an  enlargement  of  the  abdomen,  the  development 
of  which  causes  them  to  cease  throwing  otf  from  the 
stomach.  An  irritable  condition  of  the  bowels  next 
takes  place,  and  as  the  children  grow  older  they  have 
an  insatiable  thirst.  It  is  then  that  tliey  are  said  to 
be  scrofulous,  which  derangement  would  have  been 
avoided  had  they  been  subjected  to  proper  treatment 
at  an  earlier  age.  The  course  to  be  pursued  in  such 
a  case  is  plainly  indicated — a  bracing  atmosphere  ; 
warm  clothing,  but  not  in  excess  so  as  to  produce  much 
perspiration  ;  a  bland,  nutritious  diet,  given  at  regular 
stated  periods  and  in  moderate  quantity ;  and  the 
usual  quantity  of  fluid  required  by  the  child  for  drink 
daily  diminished  to  a  reasonable  amount  for  a  child 
in  good  health.  If  this  course  fails,  after  a  fair  trial, 
call  in  a  physician.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  however, 
it  will  be  unnecessary  to  do  so,  as,  by  the  foregoing 
treatment,  a  restoration  of  good  health  will  be  brought 
about,  if  the  child  is  not  much  over  a  year  old.  When 
much  older,  children  are  not  so  easily  relieved. 

From  this  practical  information,  mothers  and  nurses 
are  made  conscious  of  the  great  necessity  there  exists 
for  observing  the  means  by  which  a  child  can  be  res- 
cued from  an  enfeebled  constitution.  Due  attention 
thereto  is  an  imperative  duty  that  devolves  upon  them, 
and  any  failure  to  perform  it  may  be  a  source  of  re- 


THE  PROPER  FOOD  FOR  INFANTS. 


165 


gret  in  after  life;  for  they  may  have  to  reproach  them- 
selves with  the  reflection  tliat  through  their  negligence 
much  suffering  has  been  entailed  upon  their  offspring 
or  charge — a  fearful  responsibility,  not  to  man  alone, 
but  to  a  Higher  Power  that  will  hold  them  account- 
able for  their  heedlessness. 

The  same  regularity  should  be  observed  in  suckling 
a  child  at  certain  hours  as  would  be  attended  to  by  a 
well  regulated  family  in  partaking  of  meals,  except 
that  the  child  requires  nursing  more  frequently  w^hen 
very  young.  By  the  observance  of  such  regularity 
the  infant  will  generally  empty  the  breast,  and  thus 
obtahi  the  greatest  amount  of  nutriment.  Mothers 
enjoying  good  health,  and  attending  to  this^rule,  w^ill 
seldom  secrete  more  than  a  sufficiency  of  milk  for  a 
healthy  child,  which  alone  will  afford  ample  nutri- 
ment till  it  is  six  months  old.  When  arrived  at  that 
age,  a  child  may  be  permitted  once  a  day  to  suck  a 
piece  of  rare  lean  beef,  witli  a  little  salt  upon  it,  which 
will  have  the  effect  of  gradually  strengthening  the 
stomach.  In  a  month  or  two  more  it  may  take  a 
small  portion  of  beef  or  mutton,  and  bread  and  milk 
as  a  general  diet.  When  a  year  old,  it  should  be 
weaned.  Great  care  must,  however,  be  taken  to  give 
the  food  also  at  stated  periods,  as  the  habit  will  induce 
regularity  of  the  digestive  process,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  salutary  conditions  of  health,  and  the  primary 
force  in  establisliing  a  good  state  of  health,  other 
things  being  equal. 

The  milk  of  woman,  under  varied  circumstances, 
differs  materially  in  quantity  and  quality,  and  claims 
special  attention,  in  order  that  unfavorable  circum- 


166 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


stances  may  be  avoided  or  guarded  against.  Care 
should  therefore  be  taken  to  avoid  fasting  too  long 
and  partaking  of  inefficient  food,  as,  for  example, 
much  bread,  tea,  or  coffee,  witli  little  sugar  and  milk; 
and  to  guard  against  drinking  much  of  inferior  fer- 
mented liquors,  especially  when  meat  is  not  eaten, 
and  intemperance  in  the  use  of  vinous  or  alcoholic 
drinks.  The  milk  of  mothers  and  nurses  who  neglect 
these  precautions  contains  much  carbonaceous  and 
watery  secretion,  and  a  very  small  portion  of  nitro- 
genous nutriment  to  form  muscular  fibre  and  sub- 
stance for  the  formation  of  bone.  Consequently, 
children  suckled  from  such  a  source  are  generally 
very  faf^  when  quite  young ;  but  after  the  fourth  or 
sixth  month  they  lose  part  of  this  fat,  and  one  or  more 
of  the  following  derangements  ensue  : — glandular 
enlargement  about  the  neck ;  fullness  of  the  abdo- 
men, attended  with  hardness  ;  morbid  and  frequent 
evacuations;  pains  in  the  ears  and  discharges  from 
them  ;  acrid  watery  secretions  from  excoriation  be- 
hind the  ears ;  insatiable  thirst ;  and  tardiness  in 
teething  or  walking.  Then  follow  enlargement  of 
the  bones  at  the  joints;  bow-legs;  knock-knees;  a 
small  projection,  like  the  knuckle,  in  the  spine  or 
backbone,  which,  if  not  cared  for,  results  in  hump- 
back ;  pain  in  one  or  other  of  the  knees,  attended 
with  enlargement,  of  the  hip,  which,  if  not  pro23erly 

*  We  liere  make  tlie  distinction  between  fat  and  flesli  for  an  obvi- 
ous reason — that  it  is  not  flesli  or  muscle  wliicli  is  formed  under  the 
circumstances  aUuded  to,  but  merely  fat.  Such  a  condition  is  now 
considered  an  abnormal  one,  and  not  essential  to  the  growth  of  the 
animal  body. 


THE  PROPEIi  FOOD  FOR  INFANTS. 


treated  at  this  stage  of  the  disease,  results  in  hip  dis 
ease  ;  an  enfeebled  condition  of  tlie  digestive  powers, 
etc.  Here  we  have  a  catalogue  of  scrofulous  indica- 
tions; but,  thanks  to  a  kind  Providence,  who  is  ever 
mindful  of  erring  man,  we  are  permitted  to  exercise 
our  judgment  and  skill,  in  the  cure  of  these  fearful 
afflictions,  and  are  blessed  with  success.  Many  child- 
ren thus  afflicted  are  curable ;  and  this  fact  we  w^isli 
to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  parents  who  have  been 
induced  to  believe  that  scrofulous  affections  are  incur- 
able, because  of  their  being  hereditary.  This  falla- 
cious idea  has  arisen  from  the  failure  of  medicines 
alone  to  effect  a  cure  while  the  most  unfavorable 
circumstances  have  been  permitted  to  exist ;  and  fre- 
quently from  neglect  to  comply  witli  the  advice 
of  the  most  skillful  physicians,  whom  parents  and 
nurses  will  often  deceive  by  mistaken  indulgences  to 
the  child,  and  by  assuming  to  themselves  the  respon- 
sibility of  determining  what  is  injurious  or  inoffensive 
in  the  treatment  of  the  case.  Those  persons  who  tam- 
per with  the  health  of  their  offspring  or  charge,  and 
thus  permit  it  to  suffer  through  life,  wdien  it  could 
have  been  cured,  are  guilty  of  an  offense  that  in  its 
culpableness  almost  amounts  to  a  crime. 

Mothers  and  nurses  who  have  at  their  command 
nutritious  diet  and  other  comforts  of  life,  often  labor 
under  a  very  unfavorable  condition  of  health  for  the 
suckling  of  a  babe.  Some  are  afflicted  with  indiges- 
tion or  an  acid  stomach,  caused  by  the  food  which 
they  eat  not  being  properly  masticated,  owing  to  their 
teeth  being  defective  ;  others  indulge  in  eating  very 
indigestible  food,  which  weakens  their  digestive  pow- 


168 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


ers ;  wliile  there  is  yet  another  class  who  injure  their 
organic  functions  by  the  lazy  habit  of  lying  too 
many  hours  in  bed,  or  by  being  too  much  conlined  in 
a  close  room.  These  are  common  causes  which  pro- 
duce unhealthy  children.  When  mothers  are  afflicted 
wdth  the  ailments  here  described,  either  a  good  healthy 
nurse  should  be  procured,  or  the  child  should  be  taken 
from  the  breast  and  judiciously  fed. 

Extraordinary  conditions  of  the  mind — as  grief, 
fear,  anger,  and  sudden  surprise — also  produce  a  very 
marked  effect  upon  the  milk  of  nursing  women.  Sud- 
den emotions  have  been  known  to  suspend  the  secre- 
tion of  milk  entirely ;  and  anger  often  changes  its 
quality  so  as  to  make  it  injurious  to  the  health  of  the 
child  ;  for,  in  some  cases,  it  will  produce  griping  pains, 
and,  not  unfrequently,  most  distressing  nervous  agita- 
tion, which  sometimes  results  in  convulsions  and  death. 
The  milk  of  nnrses  who  are  subject  to  nervous  seiz- 
ures, as  hysterics,  has  been  knowm,  during  a  parox- 
ysm, to  become  transparent  and  albuminous,  and  to 
rope  like  the  white  of  an  egg,  and,  in  a  few  hours 
after  the  paroxysm  has  passed  off,  to  gradually  re- 
gain its  ordinary  character. 

Among  other  influences  which  tend  to  impair  the 
milk  of  mothers  and  nurses,  we  may  mention  indo- 
lence, all  undue  indulgences,  irregularities  in  taking 
meals,  and  staying  up  late  at  night,  more  especially 
if  attended  with  extraordinary  excitement.  All  these 
vitiate  the  milk  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
indulgence. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  the  following  conclu- 
Bions  may  be  deduced  :  That  the  maternal  milk  is  the 


THE  PROPER  FOOD  FOR  INFANTS. 


169 


proper  food  for  infants.  That  mothers,  except  from 
the  most  m^geiit  and  unavoidable  circmnstances,  onght 
to  suckle  their  offspring,  and  tlius  avoid  the  risk  of 
obscure  unfavorable  conditions  of  nurses,  by  which 
'  every  precaution  may  be  frustrated  and  the  child  in- 
jured for  life.  That  the  new  milk  from  the  mother 
constitutes  the  best  nourishment,  and  that  the  eftect  of 
it  obviates  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  the  bad  practice 
of  giving  molasses  and  water,  or  other  physic,  to  an 
infant  just  born,  or  a  few  hours  after  birth,  when  the 
child  should  be  applied  to  the  mother's  breast,  whi'ch  is 
most  in  conformity  with  nature's  laws  in  providing  for 
the  young.  That  mothers,  while  suckling  their  child- 
ren, should  maintain  an  equanimity  of  mind,  should 
avail  themselves  of  proper  exercise,  pursue  regular 
habits,  eat  wholesome  food,  breathe  salubrious  air,  and 
sliould  guard  against  all  undue  excitement  or  depress- 
ing influences  of  mind.  That  they  should  also  con- 
scientiously observe  regularity  as  to  stated  periods  of 
suckling,  and  should  have  the  breast  emptied  at  each 
nursing;  and  that,  when  an  excessive  quantity  of 
milk  is  seoreted  at  first,  they  should  draw  off  a 
portion  before  applying  the  child.  That  next  in 
suitableness  to  the  mother  is  a  healthy  nurse,  whose 
child  is  of  the  same  age  (or  as  near  as  can  be)  as  that 
of  the  child  to  be  nursed,  which  nurse  sliould  be  kept 
in  the  house  ;  but  if  such  a  person  can  not  be  procured, 
the  next  resource  is  cow's  milk,  as  fresh  as  it  can  be 
obtained,  (but  never  kept  more  than  twelve  hours,)  in 
which  event  good  rich  milk  should  be  diluted  with 
one  half  warm  water,  and  sweetened  moderately  witli 
sugar.    That  milk  obtained  from  a  healthy,  well-fed 


170 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


animal  is,  after  that  of  the  mother  or  nurse,  the  only 
reliable  food  for  a  babe,  as  it  contains  all  that  is  requi- 
site to  form  the  animal  body,  and  to  sustain  the  organ- 
ism in  the  healthy  performance  of  its  normal  functions. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  FAT,  rrS  CAUSES  AND  CONSEQUENCES. 

The  nature  and  tendency  of  vegetable  food — The  production  of 
fat  is  the  result  of  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  in  the  system — Dia- 
betes and  its  treatment — Its  injurious  effects. 

VEGETABLES  enter  largely  into  the  food  of 
man,  and  have  a  very  decided  tendency  to 
produce  fat.  Professor  Liei^ig  states,  that  whether 
fat  be  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  fibrin  and  albu- 
men, the  chief  constituents  of  the  blood,  or  by  that 
of  starch,  sugar,  or  gum,  (vegetable  products,)  such 
decomposition  must  be  accompanied  by  the  separa- 
tion of  oxygen  from  the  elements  of  these  compounds. 
But  that  the  oxygen  is  not  given  out  in  a  free  state, 
because  it  meets  in  the  general  organism  with  sub- 
stances that  possess  the  property  of  entering  into  com- 
bination with  it.  In  fact,  it  is  given  out  in  the  same 
forms  as  oxygen  which  is  absorbed  from  the  atmos- 
phere by  the  skin  and  lungs.  Hence  it  may  be 
inferred  that  a  portion  of  these  carbonaceous  sub- 
stances are  essential  to  the  sustenance  and  increase  of 
the  body,  but  an  excess  of  them  overburdens.  Upon 


THE  rRODUCTION  OF  FAT^ 


171 


tliis  subject  Liebig  says :  ^'  The  abnormal  condition 
which  causes  the  deposits  of  fat  in  the  animal  body 
depends,  (as  was  formerly  stated,)  on  a  disproportion 
between  the  quantity  of  carbon  in  the  food  and  that 
of  oxygen  absorbed  by  the  skin  and  lungs.  In  the 
normal  condition  the  quantity  of  carbon  given  out  is 
exactly  equal  to  that  which  is  taken  in  the  food,  and  the 
body  acquires  no  increase  of  weight  from  the  accumu- 
lation of  substances  containing  mucli  carbon  and  no 
nitrogen.  If  we  increase  the  supply  of  highly  carbon- 
ized food,  then  the  normal  state  can  only  be  preserved 
on  condition  that,  by  exercise  and  labor,  or  by  the 
oxygen  obtained  from  exposure  to  a  cold  atmosphere, 
the  weight  of  the  body  is  increased,  and  the  supply 
of  oxygen  augmented  in  the  same  proportion." 

He  further  remarks  :  "  The  production  of  fat  is 
always  a  consequence  of  a  deficient  supply  of  oxygen, 
for  oxygen  is  absolutely  indispensable  for  dissipation 
of  the  excess  of  carbon  in  the  food.  This  excess  of 
carbon,  deposited  in  the  form  of  fat,  is  never  seen  in 
the  Bedouin  or  in  the  Arab  of  the  desert,  who  exhib- 
its with  pride  to  the  traveler  his  lean,  muscular,  sin- 
ewy limbs,  altogether  free  from  fat.  But  in  prisons 
and  jails  it  appears  as  a  puffiness  in  the  inmates,  fed, 
as  they  are,  on  a  poor,  scanty  diet.  It  appears  in 
sedentary  females  of  oriental  countries ;  and,  finally, 
it  is  produced  under  the  well-known  conditions  of  the 
fattening  of  domestic  animals. 

"  In  every  period  of  animal  life,  when  there  occurs  a 
disproportion  between  the  carbon  of  the  food  and  the 
inspired  oxygen,  the  latter  being  deficient,  fat  must  be 
formed.    Oxygen  separates  from  existing  compounds, 


172 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


and  tliis  oxygen  is  given  out  as  carbonic  acid  and 
water.  Heat  being  generated  in  the  formation,  these 
two  products  contribute  to  keep  up  the  temperature 
of  the  body.  Every  pound  of  carbon  which  obtains 
the  oxygen  necessary  to  convert  it  into  carbonic  acid 
from  substances  which  thereby  pass  into  fat,  must  dis- 
engage as  much  heat  as  would  raise  the  temperature 
of  200  pounds  of  water  by  YO^— that  is,  from  32^  to 
102^." 

From  this  well-authenticated  statement  we  learn 
the  result  of  eating  an  excess  of  carbonaceous  food — 
the  formation  of  fat.  This  is  one  of  nature's  preserva- 
tive means  when  we  are  so  situated  as  to  be  deprived 
of  a  sufficiency  of  atmospheric  oxj^gen  and  exercise  to 
maintain  an  equilibrium  of  healthy  action  in  the  sys- 
tem. We  must  remember  that  an  insufficiency  of 
oxygen  predisposes  to  the  formation  of  fat,  and  that 
when  fat  is  not  formed,  (as  it  is  well  known  that  in 
many  instances  it  is  not,)  the  free  carbonized  matter 
remains  in  the  system,  where  it  tends  to  create  bile,  or, 
as  we  have  stated  before,  is  deposited  in  all  parts  of 
the  system  in  the  form  of  tubercles.  Even  sugar  is 
formed,  and  thence  arises  the  disease  known  as  dia- 
ietes — a  fearful  malady,  seldom  cured,  and  quite  as 
fatal  as  consumption.  All  vegetable  food  containing 
starch — and  it  is  found  in  great  quantity  in  ne'arly  all 
vegetables — is  readily  changed  into  sugar  when  a 
disposition  to  diabetes  is  once  established  in  the  sys- 
tem. In  such  cases  medicines  afford  but  little  relief, 
unless  the  patients  are  removed  to  a  location  where 
they  can  enjoy  a  bracing  atmosphere,  and  are  con- 
fined exclusively  to  an  animal  diet,  with  their  exercise 


STARCH  AND  SUGAR  AS  DIET. 


173 


(and  exercise  is  very  necessary)  graduated  to  what 
they  can  endure  Avithont  mnch  fatigue.  Exercise 
facilitates  motion  and  activity  in  the  organism,  and 
creates  an  increased  demand  for  oxygen,  which  will 
be  readily  supplied  from  the  condensed  or  cool  at- 
mosphere w^ell  charged  with  electricity.  ,  Stimulus 
will  thus  be  given  to  the  nervous  system,  which  stim- 
ulus is  very  conducive  to  the  relief  of  the  sufferers, 
who  are  invariably  much  depressed  in  spirits,  which 
very  despondency  increases  the  ailment  by  enfeebling 
the  s.ystem. 


CHAPTER  X. 

STARCH  AND  SUGAR  AS  ARTICLES  OF  DIET. 

StarcL.  is  a  most  abundant  product  of  the  vegetable  king-dom — The 
various  plants  from  which  starch  is  manufactured — Change  of 
starch  into  sugar — Plants  from  which  sugar  is  obtained  —Amount 
annually  produced — Constituents  of  various  kinds  of  sugar — Pro- 
cess of  malting — Pure  sugar  not  a  nutritious  diet. 

""VTEXT  to  wood,  stcirch  is  the  most  abnndant  pro- 
1  duct  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  found  in 
all  the  grains  and  grasses,  in  tubers  and  bulbs,  in  the 
stems  of  many  plants,  and  in  the  barks  of  various  trees. 
It  is  contained  in  tlie  cells  of  tlie  plant,  sometimes 
filling  the  cells,  at  other  times  lying  loose  in  them. 
Although  to  the  naked  eye  starch  seems  to  be  an  im- 
palpable powder,  yet,  under  the  microscope,  it  is  seen 
to  be  made  up  of  regularly  orgaiiized  grains  that  re- 


174 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


semble  exceedingly  minute  seeds,  and  vary  in  size 
frpm  g-Jo  to  -gV  of  a  line  in  diameter,  tJie  largest  of 
whicli  are  found  in  the  potato,  where  they  are  formed 
in  concentrated  layers.  These  grains  are  un affected 
by  cold  water,  but  in  hot  w^ater  they  increase  thirty- 
fold  and  form  a  transparent  mass  by  solution.  Dry 
heat  breaks  them  up  into  star-shaped  particles  and 
renders  them  soluble.  Tlie  substance  thus  formed 
from  flour  is  called  British  givm^  and  is  used  exten- 
sively in  manufactories,  in  the  printing  of  calico,  and 
for  sizing.  Starch  forms  a  large  par«t  of  the  vegeta- 
ble food  that  we  eat :  wheat  flour  contains  from  70  to 
80  per  cent ;  corn-meal,  at  least  80  ;  rice,  80  to  90  ; 
j)eas,  32  ;  potatoes,  20  to  30  ;  and  beans,  30.  The 
object  of  cooking  these  materials  for  man  or  beast  is 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  starch  soluble,  and 
therefore  more  easy  of  digestion.  It  is  well  known 
that  animals  will  fatten  much  faster  on  cooked  than 
on  raw  food. — Darlnfs  Chemistry, 

Arrow-root  is  from  the  root  of  the  Maranta  arun- 
dinacea^  a  West-Indian  plant,  which  is  now  cultivated 
extensively  in  Florida  and  southern  Georgia.  When 
pure,  starch  should  be  perfectly  free  from  odor  or 
taste.  The  Bermuda  arrow- root  is  the  best.  It  makes 
a  stiff*,  strong  jelly,  is  employed  in  making  hlanc 
mange^  and  in  the  production  of  various  composi- 
tions in  the  culinary  art,  and,  if  prepared  with  milk, 
forms  an  agreeable  light  diet. 

Tapioca  is  from  the  root  of  tliose  very  poisonous 
plants  of  South- America,  tlie  Jatropha  janirjha  and 
the  Joiropha  maniJiot.  The  root  is  ground  or  bruised, 
and  then  pressed  in  coarse  bags,  whicli  arc  suspended 


STARCH  A^q-D  SUGAR  AS  DIET, 


175 


SO  that  tliey  maybe  twisted  to  compress  the  contents, 
when  a  milky  juice  rans  therefrom  into  large  vessels, 
and  this  juice  contains  the  starch,  which  soon  settles. 
The  starch  is  then  partially  baked  on  hot  stones,  and 
by  stirring  is  formed  into  the  irregular  grains  in  which 
the  commodity  comes  to  ns.  Tapioca  is  partly  solu- 
ble, on  account  of  the  baking  it  has  undergone.  What 
remains  in  the  bag  is  called  cassava^  and  is  used  for 
making  a  coarse  bread.  The  process  of  washing  and 
cooking  destroys  the  poison,  and  renders  tapioca  one 
of  the  most  palatable  forms  of  starch.  It  is  made  into 
puddings  and  gruels,  the  latter  of  which  are  much  rel- 
shed  by  children — more  so,  in  fact,  than  any  other 
food.  It  agrees  with  the  stomach,  and  if  cooked  wdth 
milk  makes  a  nutritious  article  of  diet. 

Sago  is  from  the  sago  jpalm^  the  Sagus  Rumjpliii^ 
from  the  Moluccas,  and  is  imported  from  Singapore. 
It  is  found  in  the  shops  under  three  forms^  namely, 
pearl  sago,  meal  sago,  and  brown  sago.  Only  the  first 
has  undergone  a  process  of  manufacture ;  the  tw^o  lat- 
ter are  merely  distinguished  by  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  put  up.  Sago  is  used  as  a  mild  diet  for  in- 
valids. One  ounce  of  any  of  these  varieties  to  a  pint 
of  water  or  milk  is  sufScient. 

Starches  will  not  support  life.  They  make  fat,  but 
not  flesh,  or  brains,  or  nerves.  But  tliey  are  usually 
cooked  with  milk  and  eggs,  which  supply  the  mate- 
rials in  w^hich  starch  is  deficient.  A  child  should  not  * 
be  fed  long  on  any  of  these  starchy  bodies  exclu^ 
sively.    The  composition  of  starcli  is  as  follows  : 


Respirable  Element?,  or 
r.it-Maldijg. 


Carbon  13.    Nitrag'en  0. 

llydrogciii  10.    Muscle-Making.  .  0. 

Oxyg-en.  ....  .10. 


176 


TtlE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


Starch,  we  repeat,  is  readily  converted  into  sugar, 
gum,  or  fat.  In  truth,  it  is  discernible  to  all,  that 
men  and  animals  fed  on  sugar  and  starch  get  fat. 
LiEBiG  has  drawn  attention  to  the  fact  that  fat  must  be 
produced  by  a  change  in  the  chemical  constituents  of 
these  substances,  by  wdiich  change  they  are  converted 
into  oil.  This  deducement  w^as  at  one  time  doubted  by 
Dumas  and  the  French  chemists,  but  recent  experi- 
ments have  led  to  the  conlirmation  of  Liebig's  con- 
clusions. The  fact  is  one  of  great  practical  import- 
ance, as  it  proves  that  persons  may  be  living  on  food 
which  w^ill  cause  them  to  get  fat,  but  yet  will  afford 
no  real  nourishment  for  the  muscular  tissues  that 
require  nitrogenous  substances. 

To  convert  starch  into  gum  it  is  necessary  to  heat 
it  to  a  temperature  of  300°.  After  that  it  becomes 
soluble  in  cold  water,  and  forms  what  we  have  njen- 
tioned  is  called  in  commerce  British  gum,  wdiicli  is 
substituted  in  the  arts  for  the  more  expensive  gums. 
If  starch  is  boiled,  and,  after  a  small  quantity  of 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  is  added,  boiled  again,  it  is 
changed  into  dextrin."^  By  continuing  the  boiling  for 
several  hours,  and  then  neutralizing  the  acid  by  chalk, 
grape  sugar  is  produced.  In  this  process  more  sugar 
is  obtained  than  there  was  starch.  Starch  is  also 
changed  into  sugar  by  freezing,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
sweetness  of  recently  thawed  potatoes.  In  ripening 
fruits,  the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar  by  the  action 
of  the  organic  acids. 

The  ready  manner  in  which  sugar  is  obtained  from 

*  Maize  is  now  being  made,  by  tliis  process,  into  molasses,  on  a 
limited  scale. 


STARCH  AND  SUGAR  AS  DIET. 


177 


vegetable  and  even  animal  substances — from  the  lat- 
ter for  medicinal  purposes  in  small  quantities  for  ex- 
j^eriment — but  mainly  from  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
would  suggest  the  idea  that  it  ought  to  be  one  of  the 
cheapest  articles  of  food,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
used.  This  would  certainl^^  be  the  case,  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  'governments  consider  it  a  luxury, 
tax  it  accordingly,  and  rely  upon  it  as  one  of  the 
great  sources  of  revenue,  which  it  undoubtedly  is,  r.s 
persons  in  the  most  indigent  circumstances  indulge 
in  its  use.  The  demand  for  suo^ar  is  so  o^reat  that  an 
immense  amonnt  of  capital  has  been  invested  in  the 
culture  of  the  sugar-cane  (saGGliarumofficinavuii%)  and 
of  the  beet,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  those  plants.  Much  capital  has  also  been  in- 
vested, but  not  so  extensively,  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  the  maple,  palm,  sorghum,  and  imphee,  the 
two  latter  being  now  largely  brought  into  cultivation. 

Of  beet  sugar,  362,000,000  pounds  are  produced 
annually  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  produced  annually,  throughout  the 
world,  5,154,000,000  pounds  of  sugar,  of  which 
4,527,000,000  are  from  the  cane,  362,000,000  from 
the  beet,  220,000,000  from  the  palm,  and  45,000,000 
from  the  maple.  In  the  United  States  there  were 
manufactured  in  1860,  according  to  the  census  tables, 
230,982  hogsheads  (1000  pounds  each)  of  cane  sugar 
and  40,120,083  pounds  of  maple  sugar ;  also  14,963,996 
gallons  of  cane  molasses,  1,597,589  gallons  of  maple 
molasses,  and  6,749,123  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
The  imports  of  sugar  into  the  United  States  for  con- 
sumption amount  in  value  to  $31,000,000  annually. 


118 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


Cane  sugar  consists  of 

12  equivalents  of  carbon. 
11  "       "  hydrogen. 

11  "       "  oxygen. 

And  one  hundred  parts  of  juice  contain  : 

Sugar,  18  per  cent. 

Water  and  gluten,  Yl  " 
Woody  fibre,  10  " 
Salts,  1  " 

Beet  juice  contains : 

Sugar,  10|^  per  cent. 

Water,  81^  " 

Gluten,  3  " 

Woody  fibre,   5  " 

Maple  sugar  {Mctple  sap,  Acer  sacGliarlnurri)  is  the 
same  as  cane  sugar,  of  which  the  sap  of  the  tree 
yields  2J  per  cent,  the  remaining  97|^  per  cent  being 
almost  entirely  composed  of  water. 

Grape  sugar  differs  slightly  in  its  composition  from 
that  of  cane,  and  is  as  follows  : 

12  equivalents  of  carbon. 
14  "  hydrogen. 
14  "        "  oxygen. 

The  sugar  formed  in  the  human  system,  in  the  dis- 
ease called  diabetes,  has  the  same  composition  as  grape 
sugar ;  so  also  has  the  sugar  formed  from  honey,  that 
of  all  the  fruits,  and  that  of  starch.  Grape  sugar  is  not 
crystallized  like  cane  sugar,  but  is  similar  to  that  pro- 


STAECH  AND  SUGAR  AS  DIET. 


17-9 


daced  by  the  decomposition  of  many  plants,  as  in 
freezing,  etc. 

Sugar  of  milk  is  composed  as  follows  : 
24  equivalents  of  carbon. 
24:  "        "  hydrogen. 

•  24  "  oxygen. 

Notwithstanding  tlie  apparent  difference  between  this 
sugar  and  that  of  cane  and  grape,  it  is  considered  a 
true  sugar. 

The  medicinal  substances  known  as  manna  and 
liquorice  lack  the  proj)erties  of  sugar,  (although  they 
are  sweet,)  as  they  can  not  be  converted  into  alcohol 
by  fermentation.  Karefied  manna,  called  mannite^ 
consists  of : 

6  equivalents  of  carbon. 

7  "       ^'  hydrogen. 
6  "  oxygen. 

MoLDER  suggests  that  these,  or  similar  formations^ 
are  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of  grape  sligar  in 
the  plants. 

Sugar  is  not  so  profusely  distributed  in  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  as  starch,  but  seems  to  be,  in  many  in- 
stances, a  result  of  starch,  as  in  the  ripening  of  fruit 
and  in  the  germination  of  plants.  A  knowledge  of 
the  latter  led  to  the  process  of  malting  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  sugar,  which  is  essential  to  the  fermenta- 
tion of  beer.  No  vinous  fermentation  can  take  place 
without  the  presence  of  grape  sugar ;  and  when  cane 
sugar  is  added,  it  changes  into  grape  sugar.  Sugar  is 
found  in  the  cereal ia  and  other  graminse,  in  many  roots, 
as  the  carrot,  turnip,  parsnip,  and  in  many  other  plants. 


180 


THE  CHEMISTEY  OF  FOOD. 


Starch  seems  to  be  the  first  product  in  the  cells  of 
plants,  at  certain  periods  in  the  growth  of  which  it  is 
changed  into  sngar,  and  the  sngar  again  into  starch. 
Many  plants  contain  sweet  juices  when  young,  but 
not  wdien  their  grow^th  is  completed — take,  for  exam- 
ple, green  peas. 

Sugar,  wdien  taken  into  the  stomach,  produces  an 
eflect  similar  to  that  obtained  from  starch.  When 
acted  upon  by  oxygen,  or,  as  now  expressed,  consumed^ 
it  eliminates  animal  heat ;  bnt  when  it  is  not  con- 
sumed, it  is  like  starch  converted  into  oil  and  de- 
posited in  the  tissue  in  the  foi-m  of  fat.  From  this 
result  it  is  supposed  to  be  nutritious. 

Pure  sugar,  however,  is  not  nutritious,  for  it  con- 
tains no  nitrogen.  Life  can  not  be  sustained  by  it, 
as  has  been  fully  determined  by  Majenbie.  But  much 
nourishment  is  obtained  by  eating  of  the  sugar-cane, 
as  it  consists  largely  of  gluten.  (See  page  1Y8.)  Hence 
it  is  that  negroes  fatten  and  become  so  vigorous  when 
they  eat  the  sugar-cane  and  drink  its  juice  during  the 
season  in  which  they  gather  it.  Still,  although  it  con- 
tains all  the  elements  required  to  sustain  thcgrowth 
of  the  animal  body,  w^e  would  not  advise  persons 
wdtli  weak  digestive  powers  to  attempt  to  improve 
their  health  either  by  eating  the  cane  or  by  drinking 
its  juice.  If  not  properly  digested  in  the  stomach, 
it  forms  various  acids,  but  most  frequently  lactic  acid, 
wdiich  acts  as  an  irritant,  and  produces  serious  nervous 
derangements,  at  times  of  a  very  alarming  character. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  sugar  digests  much 
more  readily  than  starch,  and,  in  the  form  of  candies, 
is  generally  eaten  by  cliildren  with  impunity.  This, 


HISTORY  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SUGAR.  181 

however,  is  not  always  a  safe  practice ;  nevertheless, 
when  sugar  is  combined  with  from  seventy  to  ninety 
per  cent  of  wheat  flour,  and  made  plain  and  light  in 
the  form  of  bread,  raised  with  a  little  soda,  a  whole- 
some diet  is  produced.  The  coarser  kinds  of  sugar 
and  molasses  are  the  most  nutritious,  as  they  contain 
more  or  less  of  the  glutinous  impurities  of  the  cane 
juice. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  HISTORY  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SUGAR. 

Sugar  was  known  from  the  earliest  ages — The  Venetians  brought 
it  into  Europe — Its  introduction  into  America — The  latest  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  sugar — Its  antiseptic  proper- 
ties— The  preparation  of  fruit  jellies. 

IT  would  appear  from  history  that  sugar  was  known 
in  Asia  from  the  earliest  ages.  About  the  time 
of  the  Crusade,  the  Venetians  brought  it  into  Europe, 
when  it  was  introduced  as  a  medicine.  After  tlie  dis- 
covery of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  wlien  that  route 
to  the  East-Indies  was  opened  to  navigation,  sugar 
was  made  an  article  of  commerce  by  the  Portuguese. 
The  cultivation  of  the  cane  was  subsequently  ex- 
tended to  Arabia,  Egypt,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  the  Can- 
aries ;  and,  upon  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  to 
America,  w^liere  it  has  been  pursued  with  great  suc- 
cess, but  not  without  the  expenditure  of  a  large 
amount  of  capital  and  many  discouraging  circum- 


182 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


stances,  which  have  been  gradually  overcome  by  the 
modern  discoveries  in  chemistry. 

The  first  great  discovery  was  the  unfavorable  influ- 
ence of  the  atmospheric  air  upon  the  juice,  owing  to 
its  action  upon  the  acids  producing  a  very  rapid 
change,  and  forming,  with  the  nutritious  element, 
uncrystallized  compounds.  Thus  the  necessity  of  im- 
mediate evaporation,  or  of  the  introduction  .of  some 
neutralizing  material  to  arrest  the  action  of  the  acids. 
For  this  purpose  lime  was  first  used,  but  it  answered 
only  partially,  as  the  action  of  the  air  on  the  nitro- 
genized  materials  still  produced  the  very  result  it  w^as 
sought  to  avoid.  Sulphate  of  lime,  gypsum,  or  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  answered  much  Better,  as  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  united  with  the  sulphur  and  prevented  the 
changes  taking  place  in  the  juice.  Next,  the  high 
degree  of  heat  necessary  to  produce  evaporation  of 
the  water  was  found  to  be  unfavorable  to  crystalliza- 
tion, and  left  great  quantities  of  molasses  ;  but  further 
assistance  from  science  also  overcame  this  difficulty. 
It  was  discovered  that  by  the  use  of  the  air-pump  a 
large  proportion  of  the  moist  air  could  be  removed 
from  over  the  evaporating  pans,  and  tliat  one  hundred 
and  fifty  degrees  of  lieat  was  sufficient  to  cause  the 
necessary  evaporation  required  to  produce  the  con- 
sistency for  crystallization,  tlie  result  of  which  was 
that  fifty  per  cent  more  sugar  could  be  crystallized 
than  by  the  old  process. 

Molasses  and  coarse  brown  sugar  are  the  result  of 
the  defective  process  of  manufacture.  Both  contain 
more  or  less  of  the  nutritious  parts  of  the  cane  juice, 
which  are  separated  from  them  by  various  processes  of 


HISTORY  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SUGAR.  183 


purifying.  Sugar  is  now  purified  by  passing  tlie  sirup 
througli  granulated  animal  charcoal,  or  burnt  bonea 
broken  into  grains  about  the  size  of  wheat.  One  of 
the  former  methods  was  to  intermingle  some  gela- 
tinous material,  as  bullock's  blood,  with  the  sirup,  and 
then  boil  it ;  and  another,  to  submit  the  impure  gran- 
ulated sugar  to  a  process  called  claying.  By  the  lat- 
ter the  sugar  was  covered  with  fine  claj^,  after  which 
was  diflused  over  the  clay  just  sufiicient  w^ater  to  sim- 
ply percolate  through  it  in  very  small  quantity,  and 
to  carry  ofif  the  molasses  without  dissolving  the  sugar. 

Loaf  sugar  was  originally  formed  by  a  process  of 
purifying.  The  sirup,  wlien  properly  concentrated 
and  partially  clarified,  was  poured  into  conical-shaped 
earthen  vessels,  with  the  apex  undermost,  in  order 
that  the  fluid  and  impurities  might  collect  there  and 
be  drawn  oflF  by  the  removal  of  a  plug.  When  per- 
fectly drained  it  w^as  put  up  in  paper  and  sold  in  that 
shape.  It  is  now  purified  in  large  mass  and  broken 
up  for  the  convenience  of  use. 

Pure  sugar  is  hard,  white,  inodorous,  and  undergoes 
no  change  by  exposure  to  air ;  and,  when  two  pieces 
are  rubbed  together,  emits  a  phosphorescent  light. 
It  is  soluble  in  an  equal  weight  of  cold  water,  and,  to 
an  unlimited  extent,  in  hot  water.  It  is  also  soluble 
in  about  four  times  its  weight  of  boiling  alcohol ;  but 
the  solution,  on  cooling,  deposits  large  crystals.  These 
crystals  are  four  or  six-sided  prisms,  beveled  at  the 
extremities.  Sugar  is  insoluble  in  fourth-proof  brandy 
or  in  any  other  alcoholic  spirits  of  high  proof.  Liquors 
that  dissolve  sugar  contain  large  quantities  of  water. 

Sugar  is  one  of  the  greatest  antiseptics  with  which 


184 


THE  CHEMISTJRT  OF  FOOD. 


we  are  acquainted,  as  it  not  only  preserves  fruits  and 
their  juices,  but  also  flesli  meat,  which  it  does  better 
than  salt.  It  preserves  them  by  dissolving  the  albu- 
men and  absorbing  the  water,  by  which  means  the 
fluids  ajL'e  converted  into  a  thick  sirup,  and  the  air  is 
thereby  excluded. 

The  success  attending  the  preservation  of  fruits 
depends  much  upon  the  dryness  and  purity  of  the 
sugar  used.  The  juice  of  the  fruit  alone  should  forn^ 
the  sirup.  By  the  effect  of  heat  part  of  the  juice  is 
changed  into  sugar,  and  remains  in  the  form  of  sirup — 
a  form  in  v/hich  sugar  will  retain  its  integrity  although 
diluted  with  fluid  substances  equal  to  its  own  weiglit. 

When  sugar  is  heated  to  tliree  hundred  and  sixty-flve 
degrees,  it  melts  into  a  viscid,  colorless  liquid,  which, 
on  being  suddenly  cooled,  forms  a  transparent  mass 
called  harley  sugar.  At  a  liiglier  temperature  (about 
four  hundred  degrees)  it  loses  two  equivalents  of 
w^ater,  and  is  converted  into  a  black  porous  mass, 
wdiich  has,  when  cooled,  a  high  lustre  like  anthracite 
coal,  and  is  called  caramel.  In  the  preparation  of 
fruit  jelly  ^  sugar  unites  witli  a  substance,  found  in  all 
kinder  of  fruit  and  many  vegetables,  called  pectine. 
When  the  juice  of  fruit  is  boiled,  and  sugar  added, 
this  pectine  is  converted  into  pectic  acid^  which  is  ren- 
dered insoluble  in  water,  and  forms  jelly.  But,  if 
boiled  for  a  time  after  this  acid  is  formed,  another 
acid  is  obtained  called  metapectic  acid^  which  is  solu- 
ble in  water.  In  the  latter  case  jelly  will  not  be 
formed.  This  is  the  cause  of  failure  in  some  attempts 
to  make  fruit  jellies.  The  juice  of  fruit  just  ripe  forms 
jelly  most  readily.    If  over  ripe,  the  process  will  be 


VARIETIES  OF  FERMENTATION. 


185 


attended  with  miicli  risk,  and  is  most  likely  to  prove 
a  failure.  The  hardness  of  green  fruit  is  mainly  pro- 
duced by  pectine  and  starch  filling  the  cells  more  or 
less.  As  the  fruit  ripens,  this  hardness  is  dissolved 
by  the  organic  acids  changing  the  starch  into  sugar, 
and  the  fruit  is  thus  rendered  delicious. 

The  test  for  the  two  varieties  of  sugar — grape  and 
cane — is  sulphuric  acid.  If  poured  on  cane  sugar,  it 
turns  it  black,  but  it  will  not  change  the  color  of 
grape  sugar. 


THE  FOUR  VARir:TIES  OF  FERMENTATION. 

The  processes  of  fermentation  and  tlieir  results — Changes  in  the 
germination  of  seeds  and  the  ripening  of  fruit — The  fermenta- 
tion of  grape  sugar  and  the  change  of  sugar  into  alcohol — Yeast 
essential  to  form  vinous  fermentation  —  Formation  of  acetic 
acid,  or  vinegar  —  Putrefactive  fermentation  —  Heat  and  cold 
arrest  fermentation — How  to  preserve  meat  and  vegetables. 

^  UGAK,  starch,  gluten,  and  mucilaginous  sub- 


stances  have,  under  certain  conditions,  a  strong 
tendency  to  decomposition.    The  process  is  known 
fermentation^  and  has  been  divided  into  four  varie- 
ties— saccharine,  vinous,  acetous,  and  putrefactive 
fermentation. 

One  of  the  substances  known  to  be  subject  to  sac- 
charine  fermentation  is  starch.  When  gelatinous 
starch,  or  amylon^  is  kept  in  a  moist  state  for  a  con- 


CHAPTEE  XII. 


186 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOOD. 


siderable  time,  a  change  gradually  ensues,  and  a 
quantity  of  sugar,  equal  to  about  half  the  weight  of 
starch  employed,  is  generated.  The  germination  of 
seeds,  as  exemjjlilied  in  the  malting  of  barley,  is  like- 
wise an  instance  of  saccharine  fermentation  ;  as  are 
also  the  ripening  of  fruit  and  the  freezing  of  potatoes 
and  several  fruits. 

Vinous  fermentation  is  dependent  upon  the  presence 
of  sugar,  water,  and  gluten,  wliich  form  yeast.  By  it 
cane  sugar  is  changed  to  that  of  grape,  the  change 
being  essential  to  the  production  of  vinous  fermenta- 
tion. The  temperature  necessary  to  produce  this 
change  is  from  about  70°  to  90°,  at  which  heat  yeast 
is  formed  in  a  very  small  portion,  and  continues  as 
long  as  any  sugar  exists  in  the  solution.  The  change 
from  sugar  is  to  alcohol,  in  solution  with  cai'bonic  acid 
liberated  during  fermentation— forty-five  parts  of 
sugar  will  yield  tw^enty-three  parts  of  alcohol  and 
twenty-two  parts  of- carbonic  acid  gas. 

Sugar,  in  solution,  is  not  susceptible  of  vinous  fer- 
mentation without  yeast;  but  the  juices  of  fruits  and 
plants  do  not  require  it,  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
W'hich  is  essential  to  produce  fermentation.  If  juices 
are  heated  to  212°,  and  the  air  is  excluded  by  corking 
them  tightly  in  bottles,  they  may  be  preserved  from 
change  ;  but  a  few  moments'  exposure  to  the  air  is 
sufficient  for  the  absorption  of  oxygen.  Acetous  fer- 
mentation takes  place,  and  finally  axetic  acid  (vine- 
gar) is  formed. 

When  a  liquor  that  has  undergone  vinous  fermen- 
tation, or  even  alcohol  diluted  with  water  and  w^ith 
yeast  added  to  it,  is  exposed  to  the  air  in  a  tempera- 


VARIETIES  OF  FERMENT  ATI  ON. 


187 


tiire  of  80°  or  90°,  an  intestinal  commotion  ensues, 
lieat  is  developed,  the  flnid  becomes  turbid,  and  car- 
bonic acid  is  disengaged.  These  changes  continue 
for  a  time,  and  then  cease  spontaneously.  The  liquor 
then  becomes  clear,  and  is  found  to  be  acetiG  acid^  (vin- 
egar.)   This  process  is  acetous  fermentation. 

Putrefactive  fermentation  differs  materially  from 
the  other  processes  of  fermentation,  as  complete 
decomposition  takes  place.  Substances  known  as 
proximate  principles,  such  as  oils,  resins,  and  alco- 
hol, are  not  liable  to  this  kind  of  dissolution,  and 
do  not  undergo  putrefactive  fermentation.  Those 
substances  alone  are  predisposed  to  this  kind  of  fer- 
mentation that  contain  liydrogen  in  proportion  to 
form  water,  and  particularly  those  which  contain 
nitrogen,  with  the  exception  of  caffein^  a  substance 
that  will  be  treated  of  in  a  future  chapter  under  the 
head  of  coffee.  Moisture  and  a  temperature  of  about 
80°  to  90°  is  most  favorable  to  putrefaction.  A  tem- 
perature of  32°  arrests  it  and  all  fermentation  com- 
pletely. Fruits  can  be  preserved  from  frost,  and  with- 
out injury,  at  33°  and  34°,  a  temperature  frequently 
adopted  for  the  preservation  of  very  delicate  fruit, 
such  as  pears,  apples,  and  peaches. 

The  gaseous  products  of  putrefactive  fermentation 
are  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  and, 
when  nitrogen  is  present,  ammonia.  The  residue  is 
vegetable  mould,  which  contains  much  saline  matter. 

Heat,  like  cold,  but  not  as  a  general  rule,  ex- 
erts a  most  powerful  influence  in  arresting  fermenta- 
tion. The  saccharine  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  or  of 
fruit,  may  have  yeast  added  to  it,  and  fermentation 


188 


THE  CHEMISTKY  OF  FOOD. 


may  have  commenced,  yet  a  temperature  of  120°  will 
put  a  stop  to  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
the  formation  of  alcohol;  and  in  their  stead,  if  this 
degree  of  heat  is  continued,  lactic  acid,  gum,  and 
manna  will  be  produced.  Thus  it  w^ill  be  observed 
that  alcohol  is  formed  at  a  low,  and  lactic  acid  at  a 
high,  degree  of  temperature  in  the  chemical  changes 
that  operate  in  vegetable  juices.  The  reverse,  how- 
ever, takes  place  in  animal  secretions,  of  which  milk 
furnishes  us  an  example.  When  the  temperature  ot 
that  liquid  ranges  from  50°  to  75°,  lactic  acid  is 
formed ;  but  if  the  temperature  is  raised  to  90°,  true 
vinous  fermentation  sets  in,  and  alcohol  and  carbonic 
acid  are  the  result.  It  is  in  tliis  manner  that  the  Tar- 
tars prepare  an  intoxicating  liquid  from  mare's  milk. 

Again,  the  influence  of  a  low  degree  of  tempera- 
ture has  a  remarkable  eftect  upon  the  masses  of  ani 
mal  and  vegetable  matter.  Whole  carcasses  will  re- 
main unchanged  for  centuries  at  32°,  examples  of 
which  are  found  in  the  bodies  of  elephants  cast  upon 
the  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  from  icebergs,  where  they 
must  have  remained  for  many  thousand  years  in  an 
undecomposed  condition  ;  while,  as  we  have  just 
stated,  fruits  can  be  preserved  from  decay  at  33°  and 
34°  without  their  sustaining  injury  from  being  frozen. 
At  40°,  putrefactive  fermentation  will  take  place  in 
flesh,  and  fruit  will  spoil.  ^ 

A  temperature  of  212°  will  prepare  meat,  or  vege- 
table substances ;  and  if  they  are,  while  at  that  heat, 
inclosed  in  air-tight  vessels  that  will  thoroughly  ex- 
clude the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  they  can  be  kept 
in  a  state  of  preservation  for  an  indefinite  period. 


PART  V. 

IeREALS    and  pEGUMES. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE    NUTIilTIOUS    ELEMENTS    OF   VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Vegetables  tliat  contain  the  greatest  amount  of  nutrition — The 
cerealia  stand  at  the  head — From  them  are  obtained  gluten, 
fibrin,  albumen,  and  casein,  and  all  the  mineral  substances  essen- 
tial to  the  formation  of  the  animal  body — A  greater  digestive 
effort  required  to  obtain  sustenance  from  vegetables  than  from 
meat — Albumen  soluble  in  water — Fibrin  found  in  the  juices 
and  seeds  of  plants — It  is  not  soluble  in  water — Is  convertible  into 
albumen — Albumen  in  the  egg  is  changed  into  fibrin — Legumi- 
nosse  prod  ace  the  greatest  amount  of  casein — Casein  abounds  in 
the  milk  of  the  mammalia — Oils  from  vegetables  consist  of  two 
kinds,  volatile  and  fixed — Why  animal  oil  is  more  inflammable 
than  starch  or  sugar — Oil  is  a  suitable  diet  in  extreme  cold — Vola- 
tile oils  produce  the  various  fragrant  scents— Fixed  oils  make  a 
permanent  stain — Oils  rapidly  absorb  oxygen. 

HAVING  in  previous  pages  taken  a  view  of  the 
proximate  elements  of  vegetation  and  tlieir 
ultimate  analysis,  we  will  now  investigate  the  several 
varieties  of  vegetables  which  constitute  the  food  of 
man.  We  (Commence  with  those  that  afford  the 
greatest  amount  of  actual  nutriment ;  these  we  find 
to  be  tlie  cerealia^  and  at  the  head  of  that  family  we 
place  wheat ^  as  it  contains,  next  to  flesh  meat,  the 
greatest  amount  of  protein.  All  vegetables  and  ve- 
getable productions,  as  grain  seeds  and  fruits,  con- 
tain more  or  less  of  the  elements  that  form  protein — ■ 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.    As  these 


192 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


have  been  fomid  in  all  vegetables,  and  constitute 
tlieir  greatest  bulk,  they  are  denominated  the  organiG 
elements.  But  with  them  are  also  found  potash,  soda, 
phosphate  of  June,  and  many  other  substances,  in 
small  proportion,  but  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 
performance  of  the  several  functions  of  tissues  into 
which  they  enter.  Plants  supply  the  animal  body  with 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  in  various  for- 
mations. These  constitute  the  tissues  of  the  vegetable, 
from  which  are  elaborated  and  appropriated  gluten, 
fibrin,  albumeu,  and  casein,  and  all  the  mineral  ele- 
ments required  for  the  perfect  formation  of  the  body. 
But  to  obtain  these  essential  elements  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  animal  organization  and  for  the  purpose  of 
sustaining  it,  a  greater  bulk  has  to  be  eaten  of  vege- 
table substance  than  of  animal  production.  A  greater 
amount  of  digestive  effort  is  consequently  required  to 
procure  the  necessary  nutriment.  From  this  we  learn 
that  man  will  not  starve  where  vegetable  food  can  be 
found ;  for  he  can  obtain  from  it  the  requisite  nutri- 
ment to  supply  growth,  strength,  and  heat — the  essen- 
tials that  sustain  life.  The  albumen,  fibrin,  casein, 
and  salts  will  be  appropriated  to  the  formation  of  the 
solids,  soft  solids,  and  fluids  ;  and  the  starch,  sugar, 
and  oil,  to  the  support  of  silent  combustion  in  the  re- 
spiratory process  carried  on  in  the  lungs,  in  like  man- 
ner to  the  consumption  of  fuel  by  combustion,  when, 
though  there  is  no  flame,  heat  is  eliminated.  Heat 
is  continued  until  the  fuel  is  exhausted,  and  main- 
tains in  the  human  body,  when  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion, and  under  alb  variations  of  climate,  a  tempera- 
ture of  98°,  with  sixty  beats  of  the  pulse  and  fifteen 


NUTRITIOUS  ELEMENTS  OF  VEGETABLE  FOOD.  193 


respirations  in  a  minute — man  being  the  standard  ; 
women  and  children  maintain  a  higher  temperature, 
have  a  quicker  pulse,  and  breathe  more  frequently. 

Albumen^  whether  vegetable  or  animal,  is  soluble 
in  water  up  to  boiling,  but  insoluble  after.  It  con- 
tains, in  addition  to  the  elements  that  constitute  it, 
two  atoms  of  sulphur  and  one. of  phosphorus.  Cauli- 
flowers, turnips,  and  asparagus  contain  a  large  amount 
of  albumen. 

Fibrin  is  found  in  the  juices,  fruits,  and  seeds  of 
plants;  and  in  the  blood,  lymph,  and  chyle -of  ani- 
mals. -  It  is  not  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether ; 
and 'Contains  but  one  atom  of  sulphur  and  one  of 
phosphorus.  -It  is  convertible  into  albumen,  as  may 
be  seen  in  animals  fed  on  flesh,  for  albumen  is  found  in 
their  blood.  Albumen  can  also  be  changed  into  fibrin, 
as  in  the  white  of  an  which  furnishes  the  muscle 
of  the  chicken.  What  was  formerly  called  gluten, 
and  abounds  in  wheat  flour,  is  identical  with  fibrin. 

Casein  is  found  abundantly  in  some  vegetables  and 
seeds,  especially  the  legaminosse,  as  in  beans  and  peas. 
It  also  abounds  in  the  milk  of  all  the  mammalia,  the 
casein  in  which  is  readily  formed  into  cheese.  It  dif- 
fers from  the  last  two  substances  in  not  containing 
any  phosphorus.  It  is  convertible  into  albumen,  and, 
though  present  in  milk,  is  not  found  in  any  part  of  the 
body.  Still  it  subserves  the  purposes  of  the  other 
nitrogenous  substances  in  the  sustenance  of  the  ani- 
mal body.  It  is  distinguished  from  albumen  by  not 
coagulating  at  a  temperature  of  167°  ;  also,  by  its 
being  precipitated  from  its  solution  by  a  small  quan- 
tity of  all  weak  acids,  and  re-dissolved  by  an  excess. 


194  CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 

Oils  obtained  from  tlie  vegetable  kingdom  consist 
of  two  kinds,  known  as  volatile  and  fixed  oils.  Tliey 
are  present  in  nearly  all  plants  and  seeds.  Wheat 
contains  two  to  three  per  cent ;  Indian  corn,  or  maize, 
nine  to  twelve  per  cent ;  oats,  three  ;  rice,  one  ;  cocoa- 
nut,  forty-seven  ;  ground-nuts,  forty-seven  ;  flaxseed, 
twenty-two  ;  mustard,  thirty-six  ;  and  ahnonds,  forty- 
six  per  cent.  Yolk  of  eggs  also  contains  nearly  twen- 
ty-nine ;  milk,  three ;  and  ordinary  meat,  fourteen 
per  cent.  Here  again  is  a  similarity  of  products  from 
vegetable  and  animal  substances. 

Animal  oil,  or  oil  of  fat,  consists  of : 

Carbon,  11 

Hydrogen,  10 

Oxygen,    .       .       .       .  .1 

The  large  quantity  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  which 
it  contains  renders  it  far  more  inflammable  than 
starch  or  sugar.  It  is  consequently  much  more  suita- 
ble than  those  products  for  a  diet  when  persons  are 
exposed  to  extreme  cold,  as  in  the  arctic  regions. 

Only  the  fixed  oils  constitute  the  food  of  man.  The 
volatile  oils  produce  the  various  fragrant  scents  and 
flavors  of  plants,  and  leave  no  stain.  A  fixed  oil 
makes  a  permanent  grease-spot,  and  when  pure  has  lit- 
tle or  no  taste  or  odor.  Both  are  decomposable  below 
red  heat.  When  any  of  the  fat  oils  are  much  heated, 
they  give  off*  an  exceedingly  volatile  acrid  substance 
called  acrolein.  This  substance  is  caused  by  decom- 
position. It  is  found  more  or  less  in  the  brown  crust 
of  meat  that  is  fried  or  roasted,  and  is  exceedingly  hard 
to  digest.   Such  fats  as  lard,  butter,  tallow,  and  olive 


NUTRIMENT  IN  SEEDS  EA.TEN  BY  MAN. 


105 


oil  rapidly  absorb  oxygen  from  the  atinospliere,  and 
form  acrid  acids,  which  are  decidedly  injurious  to  the 
digestive  powers.  Ointments,  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  are  also  rendered  acrid  and  stimulant,  and  are 
unfit  for  use  after  they  have  been  made  any  great 
length  of  time.  Hence  ointments  should  only  be. 
prepared  for  immediate  use. 


THE   RELATIVE   NUTRIMENT  IN  SEEDS  EATEN  BY  MAN — 
INTRODUCTION  OF  GRAIN  PLANTS. 

Relative  nutritious  qualities  of  seeds — Grain  plants  are  all  annual 
— Their  stems  contain  silex  (Hint) — They  came  from  the  East — 
Coffee,  tea,  and  cotton  traced  from  the  East  toward  the  West — 
Traditions  in  regard  to  the  early  cultivation  of  grain — An  Amer- 
ican Indian  tradition  relative  to  the  origin  of  maize,  etc. — 
Wheat  a  proof  of  the  civilization  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — It 
is  discovered  in  their  sepulchre^^Cerealia  grown  before  the  time 
of  Noah's  flood — Bread  made  by  Abraham's  wife — Joseph's  dream 
of  the  sheaves — Pharaoh's  dream  of  seven  ears  on  one  stalk — 
Humboldt  on  the  migration  of  plants — Man  has  selected  for  his 
food  about  twenty  of  the  most  abundant  seed-bearing  grasses — 
Bread  glasses  not  originally  found  in  Mexico — Wheat  introduced 
into  that  country  by  a  slave — By  whom  it  was  carried  into  Peru 
— The  first  wheat  that  reached  Quito — The  Spaniards  introduced 
wheat  into  America  —  Spring  wheat  less  hardy  than  winter 
wheat — Advantages  to  be  derived  from  growing  spring  wheat. 


^HE  following  analysis  of  tlie  constituents  and  ali- 


JL  mental  qualities  of  the  cerealia  and  leguminosse 
gives  the  number  of  parts  in  a  total  of  a  hundred  their 
several  varieties  contain  of  water  and  ashes,  and  of 
nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous  formations  : 


CHAPTER  II. 


190 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


Water  and  ashes. 


Nitrogenous 
formations. 


Carbonaceous 
formations. 


Cerealia  .  .  .  ^ 


r  Wheat, 
Rye, 
Barley, 


10 
17 
20 
11 
12 


7  parts. 


14  - 
11  " 
1  " 


23  parts. 
18  " 


72 
69 
69 
88 
81 


70  parts. 


Legiiminosge 


^  Oats, 
Rice, 
^  Maize, 
( Peas, 
<  Beans, 


( Lentils, 


19 
17 
19 


29  " 
31  " 
33  " 


7 


52 
52 
48 


The  grain-plants  are  all  annual,  and  send  np  a 
straw  or  culluni,  wliicli  is  eitlier  hollow  or  contains 
pith,  and  is  divided  into  joints.  At  these  joints  the 
leaves  have  their  insertion,  one  at  each  joint,  and 
on  alternate  sides  of  the  stem.  The  outer  covering 
of  the  stem  contains  silex  (flint)  in  very  fine  'divi- 
sion ;  it  is  found  in  tlie  aslies  of  burnt  stalks,  and 
forms  the  principal  obstacle  to  the  production  of  pa- 
per from  straw.  The  leaves  enfold  the  growing  stalk 
and  germinating  grain,  which,  as  they  increase  in 
growth  and  arrive  at  maturity,  are  liberated  by  the 
case  falling  backward.  The  ears  of  grain  are  placed 
on  a  stem,  or  racMs.  A  vaf iety  called  Egyptian  wheat 
forms  branches  of  rachis.  Oats  have  naked  branches, 
and  the  seeds  on  the  end  are  csilled  j)anides. 

Those  plants  from  whose  seeds  we  obtain  our  varie- 
ties of  bread,  wherever  thoj  are  found,  indfcate  the 
presence  of  man.  He  has  taken  them  with  him  to 
all  the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth;  and,  as  they 
w^ere  not  designed  for  liim  alone,  graminivorous  ani- 
mals have  accompanied  him.  lie  started  from  the 
East,  and,  as  distant  lands  became  his  abiding  place, 
different  climates  contributed  to  the  number  of 
grasses  and  animals.    The  period  of  the  earth's  his- 


INTRODUCTION  OF  GRAIN  PLANTS. 


197 


tory  at  which  man  made  his  advent  is  not  positively 
known  ;  for  on  this  point  we  have  only  speculation 
without  fixed  data.  In  modern  times  coffee,  tea,  the 
sugar-cane,  cotton,  the  banana,  and  some  of  the  spices 
have  been  traced  from  the  East  toward  the  West. 
Man's  acquaintance  with  the  cerealia,  however,  so  far 
precedes  the  transportation  of  these  hixuries  that  the 
liistory  of  grain-plants  seems  to  be  lost  in  the  vista  of 
time,  as  is  also  that  of  those  domestic  animals  which 
have  accompanied  him  from  his  earliest  migration. 
Hence,  inferences  have  established  probabilities,  and 
tradition  and  mythology  point  to  the  gods  as  the  first 
givers  of  these  blessings.  The  Hindoos  believe  that 
Brahma  descended  rom  heaven  for  the  purpose  of 
bestowing  them  upon  his  followers,  and  that  he  ex- 
cluded all  animal  food  and  forbade  any  indulgence 
in  it.  In  Egypt  Isis,  in  Greece  Demeter,  and  in  Home 
Ceres,  have  each  accorded  to  them  by  classical  writers 
some  similar  act  of  beneficence.  The  ancient  Peru- 
vians, when  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  only  culti- 
vated their  maize  on  sacred  ground  around  the  Incas' 
Temple  of  the  Sun,  at  an  elevation  of  twelve  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  grain  was  first  offered  as  a 
sacrifice  to  their  god,  and  was  then  distributed  among 
the  people,  who  attributed  to  it  miraculous  powers. 

Dr.  Franklin  thus  relates  a  traditional  story  of 
the  American  aborigines  concerning  the  origin  of 
maize  and  other  plants,  which  he  heard  from  an  In- 
dian chief  of  the  Susquehanna  tribe  :  "  In  the  begin- 
ning, OLir  fathers  had  only  the  flesh  of  animals  to  sub- 
sist on  ;  and  if  their  hunting  was  unsuccessful  they 
were  starving.    Two  of  our  young  hunters,  having 


198 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


killed  a  deer,  made  a  lire  in  the  woods  to  broil  some 
part  of  it.  When  they  were  about  to  satisfy  their 
hunger,  tliey  beheld  a  beautiful  young  woman  de- 
scend from  the  clouds  and  seat  herself  on  that  hill 
which  you  see  yonder  among  the  blue  mountains. 
They  said  to  each  other  :  '  It  is  a  spirit  that,  perhaps, 
has  smelt  our  broihng  venison,  and  wislies  to  eat  of 
it.  Let  us  offer  some  to  her.'  They  presented  her 
with  the  tongue.  She  was  pleased  with  the  taste 
of  it,  and  said :  '  Your  kindness  shall  be  rewarded. 
Come  to  this  place  after  thirteen  moons,  and  you 
shall  find  sometliing  that  w^ill  be  of  great  benefit  in 
nourishing  you  and  your  children  to  the  latest  gene- 
rations.' T1iey  did  so,  and  to  their  great  surprise 
found  plants  they  had  never  seen  before,  but  wdiich, 
from  that  ancient  time,  Iiave  been  constantly  culti- 
vated among  us,  to  our  great  advantage.  Where  her 
right  hand  had  touched  the  ground,  they  found  maize  ; 
where  her  left  hand  had  touched  it,  they  found  kidney- 
beans  ;  and  where  she  had  seated  herself,  they  found 
tobacco.""^ 

Wheat  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Em- 
peror Chinnang  into  China,  where  it  is  reported  to 
have  been  cultivated  three  thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  era. 

These  various  claims  to  supernatural  agencies  can 
only  amuse,  and  leave  us  to  conjecture  and  draw  in- 
ferences. That  the  cereals  were  cultivated  at  a  very 
early  period  is  a  just  inference,  and  attests  man's 
civilization.    One  of  the  proofs  of  the  civilization  of 

*  Memoirs  of  tlie  Life  and  Writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  By 
his  grandson.    Page  273. 


INTRODUCTION  OF  GRAIN  PLANTS. 


199 


the  ancient  Egyptians  has  been  the  discovery  of  wheat 
in  the  sepulchres  of  tlieir  kings,  which  were  so  perfect- 
ly inclosed  that  the  atmospheric  influence  which  w^ould 
have  decomposed  the  grain  was  excluded  for  many 
thousand  years.  When  discovered  by  the  naturalists 
in  the  French  army  on  its  invasion  of  that  country, 
the  grains  were  found  to  have  retained  their  form  and 
color,  and  proved  to  be  of  a  species  that  had  never  been 
discovered  growing  wild  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

That  the  cerealia  was  cultivated  before  the  deluge 
is  most  probable,  as  the  Bible  says  that  "  Adam's  sons 
tilled  the  ground,"  and  that  it  w^as  promised  to  Noah 
and  his  people  that  "seed  time  and  harvest  should 
not  cease."  It  also  tells  us  that  four  hundred  and  fifty 
years  after  the  flood  Abraham  directed  his  w^ife  to 
prepare  three  measures  of  fine  meal  to  make  cakes 
upon  the  hearth  for  tlie  stran«gers  who  visited  him. 
This  is  the  first  intimation  we  have  of  flour  being 
made  from  grain,  or  of  bread  being  made  and  baked  ; 
but  we  do  not  infer  from  it  that  flour  and  bread  were 
then  first  made  and  baked.  One  hundred  and  forty 
years  later  it  speaks  of  Joseph's  dream  of  the  sheaves, 
and  of  Pharaoh's  dream,  in  which  he  beheld  "seven 
ears  of  corn"  upon  one  stalk,  which  Joseph  interpret 
ed  as  representing  seven  years  of  plenty  that  were  to 
come  to  the  land  of  Egypt,  as  well  as  of  Joseph  having 
in  those  years  "  gathered  corn  as  the  sand  of  the  sea.""^ 
This  agrees  w^ith  the  peculiarities  of  the  wheat  found 
in  the  Egyptian  catacombs,  known  as  Tritimm  com- 
posihcm.  It  often  produces  seven  ears  on  one  stalk. 
Wheat  is  frequently  named  in  the  Bible,  as  we  read  in 
*  Genesis  xxxvii.  7  and  xli.  5,  49. 


200 


CEKKALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


it  of the  finest  of  wheat,"  and  of  wlieat  of  Minneth." 
It  would  then  appear  to  us  not  unreasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  for  man  were  created  the  domestic  animals, 
the  cerealia,  and  fruit,  as  they  are  all  included  in  the 
general  term  fruits  of  the  earth,"  which  we  are  told, 
were  given  to  man  on  his  introduction  to  this  planet. 

In  taking  a  \dew  of  more  modern  times,  we  know, 
that  wheat  w^as  taken  into  Europe  by  the  Romans, 
the  vine  by  the  Greeks,  and  cotton  by  the  Arabs  upon 
their  incursions  hito  Spain.  Humboldt  observes  that 
the  migration  of  these  plants  is  evident ;  but  the  hrst 
country  of  each  is  as  little  known  as  those  of  the  dif- 
ferent races  of  men,  who,  from  the  earliest  traditions, 
have  been  found  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.'^ 

"Wheat  (TvitiGum  vulgare^  Will.)  is  the  most  impor- 
tant and  widely  distributed  of  the  bread  plants,  and 
has  been  selected  from  about  four  thousand  grasses. 
Out  of  these  man  has  chosen  about  twenty  that  are  tlie 
most  abundant  seed-bearers  and  require  the  least  labor 
to  obtain  their  products,  and  has  appropriated  them 
for  food  for  himself  and  his  domestic  animals.  As  soon 
as  a  division  of  labor  was  established,  the  agricultur- 
ist gave  the  surplus  over  his  own  wants  to  commerce, 
and,  finding  it  profitable,  availed  himself  of  the  ad- 
vantages to  be  obtained  by  the  introduction  of  his 
produce  into  foreign  countries. 

None  of  the  bread-producing  grasses  of  the  East 
were  found  by  the  Europeans  when  they  first  visited 
Mexico.  Wheat  was  first  introduced  into  that  coun- 
try, in  the  year  1530,  by  a  negro  slave  belonging  to 
CoKTEZ,  who  found  three  or  four  grains  among  some 
Geograpliie  des  Plantes,  p.  35. 


INTRODUCTION  OF  GRAIN  PLANTSr 


201 


rice ;  and  tliougli  he  made  a  most  advantageous  use 
of  this  great  prize  to  the  country,  nothing  further  is 
known  of  him.  A  different  story  is  told  of  the  Span- 
ish lady  (Maria  d'  Escobar,  wife  of  Diego  de  Chaves) 
who  bestowed  a  similar  blessing  upon  Peru,  by  taking 
a  few  grains  of  wheat  to  Lima.  Her  name,  together 
with  the  plan  she  adopted  for  effecting  her  object, 
that  of  carefully  distributing  the  produce  of  successive 
harvests  among  the  farmers,  have  been  carefully  noted 
by  the  historian.  .  Still  the  exact  date  when  this  event 
took  place  is  unrecorded,  but  wheat  bread  was  scarce- 
ly known  in  the  city  of  Cuzco  in  the  year  15 4T.  The 
first  grains  of  wheat  that  reached  Quito  were  con- 
veyed thither  by  Father  Jose  Rixi,  a  Fleming,  who 
grew  them  near  the  monastery  of  St.  Fraftcis,  where 
the  monks  still  preserve  and  show,  as  a  precious  relic, 
the  rude  earthen  pot  that  contained  the  seeds.  His- 
tory thus  informs  us  that  wheat  w^as  originally  in- 
troduced into  America  by  the  Spaniards,  and  it  fur- 
ther teaches  us  that  it  has  since  been  distributed 
throughout  the  whole  continent  in  many  varieties. 

The  cultivation  of  winter  wheat  in  the  Middle 
States  is  now  very  common.  Spring  wheat  {Triticmyi 
cestivum)  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  Siberia,  and  is 
the  type  of  all  the  varieties  called  summer  and  spring 
wheats.  It  is  less  hardy  than  the  winter  wheat,  and 
the  whole  plant  has  a  more  delicate  appearance.  The 
principal  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  grow- 
ing of  this  wheat  consists  in  the  security  it  offers 
against  the  injurious  effects  of  cold  and  wet  springs 
to  which  w^inter  wheat  is  liable,  and  which  sometimes 
so  much  impair  it  as  to  destroy  all  prospect  of  a  harvest. 


202 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


In  such  a  crisis,  the  delicate  but  more  rapidly  grow- 
ing variety  of  spring  wheat  may  be  more  confidently 
relied  upon.  When,  at  the  close  of  winter,  it  is  per- 
ceived that  the  seed  sown  in  autumn  has  completely 
failed,  it  is  a  good  custom  to  replace  it  with  this 
wheat,  or,  when  there  are  bare  patches,  to  rake  it 
into  the  vacant  spaces,  and  thus  restore  the  uniformity 
of  the  crop. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

WHEAT  AND  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BREAD. 

Analysis  of  the  nutritive  qualities  of  wheat — Winter  wheat  more 
nutritious  than  summer— DilBfer en ce  in  wheat  grown  in  warm 
and  cold  regions — One  of  the  most  desirable  varieties— The 
structure  of  a  grain  of  wheat  and  its  nutritive  parts  described — 
Properties  of  cerealin  —  It  is  essential  to  promote  digestion  — ■ 
The  weight  of  wheat  and  average  yi(?ld  of  flour — Pernicious 
effects  of  fats  in  flour — They  are  increased  by  baking — When 
bread  is  most  soluble — Ordinary  mode  of  making  bread — Injuri- 
ous effects  that  may  arise — When  properly  fermented  sugar  is 
formed — Skill  required  to  make  good  bread — How  to  obtain  a 
proper  fermentation — How  to  make  yeast. 

ACCORDING  to  the  analysis  of  Sir  Humphry 
Da>^y,  the  nutritive  quality  of  spring  wheat  is 
not  quite  equal  to  that  of  winter  wheat,  the  proportion 
being  only  92|-  per  cent  in  the  former  to  9dt  in  the 
latter.  The  gluten  or  fibrin  contained  in  the  two  kinds 
varies  in  a  greater  degree — that  in  winter  wheat  being 
24  per  cent,  while  that  in  spring  is  only  19.  The 
winter  variety  is  consequently  the  most  desirable  for 


WHEAT  AND  THE  MANUFACTtTPvE  OP  BREAD.  203 


tlie  baker.  A  similar  difference  exists  between  wheat 
grown  in  our  Northern  and  Eastern  States  and  that 
raised  in  the  Southern,  Middle,  and  Western  States. 
The  greatest  amount  of  starch  is  contained  in  the 
wheat  that  is  produced  in  the  colder  regions.  Its 
flour  is  termed  by  the  baker  sliort — hence  less  nutri- 
ment— and  is  less  desirable  for  bread  than  that  grown 
in  warmer  climates,  as  the  loaf  can  not  be  made  so 
porous  or  liglit,  nor  so  large  in  size  for  the  weight  of 
flour  used.  It  is,  however,  very  desirable  for  pastry, 
as  it  requires  much  less  butter  or  fat  than  the  latter 
to  shorten  it  and  make  it  bake  crisp.  It  thus  appears 
that,  to  a  certain  extent,  locality  determines  the  nu- 
tritive quality  of  wlieat,  which  is  true  even  of  the 
finest  varieties,  if  grown  in  localities  unsuited  to  them. 

One  of  the  most  desirable  varieties  of  wheat  known 
is  called  the  Landomir,  which  derives  its  name  from  a 
district  in  Southern  Poland  ;  but  to  grow  it  equal  to 
the  sample  obtained  therefrom  has  disappointed  the 
most  skillful  agriculturists. 

"  The  structure  of  a  grain  of  wheat  from  which  our 
flour  is  made,"  says  Professor  Dakby,  "  is  not  proper- 
ly understood,  and  its  nature  not  properly  appreciated. 
It  is  an  object  of  the  highest  interest,  since  untold 
millions  depend  on  its  production;  and  were  it  better 
understood,  and  its  constitution  a  matter  of  more  uni- 
versal knowledge,  the  interests  of  society  might  be 
greatly  advanced.  The  wlieat  grain  is  a  fruit,  not  a 
seed  only.  It  is  a  one-seeded  fruit,  as  though  we  had 
a  one-seeded  bean  or  pea-pod.  The  only  difl*erence 
is  that  the  pod  of  the  wheat  is  closely  applied  to  the 
seed,  but  in  the  bean  or  pea  it  is  not ;  the  seed  is 


204 


CEREALS  AT^D  LEGUMES. 


loose  in  one  case,  and  closely  enfolded  in  the  pod  in 
the  other.    The  same  is  true  of  corn,  oats,  rye,  etc. 

"  The  accompanying  figure  is  a  representation  of  a 
section  of  a  grain  of  wheat  from  end  to  end,  greatly 
magnified,  so  as  to  show  it  as  it  appears  under  the 
microscope.  The  membranes  are  represented  as  seoa- 
rated,  so  as  to  make  them  distinct. 

"  The  membranes,  marked  1,  2,  3,  4,  make  up  the 
pod:  1,  the  cuticle^  or  outer  skin  ;  2,  the  ejndermis  * 
3,  tlie  epioarp  *  4,  tlie  endocarp.  These  envelopes 
have  no  nutriment  in  them,  are  coh:)rless  or  of  a  light 
brown  color,  and  form  the  toughest  part  of  the  bran. 

"No.  5  is  the  outer  covering  of  the  seed  and  gives 
color  to  the  grain.  It  belongs  to  tlie  bran,  and  takes 
no  part  in  nutrition. 

No.  6  is  an  important  portion  of  the  seed,  andought 
always  to  be,  but  is  seldom,  in  the  flour.  It  is  mostly 
containerd  in  the  shorts — a  name  given  by  the  millers 
to  a  very  fine  quality  of  bran,  which  is  sold  as  a  supe- 
rior feed  for  cattle  to  that  of  coarse  bran,  in  which 
there  is  little  or  no  nutriment,  though  some  will  be 
found  in  the  flour  that  adheres  to  it.  This  portion  of 
the  seed  is  nutritious,  and  medicinal  in  one  sense,  and 
its  chemical  relations  are  of  the  most  important  cha- 
racter, not  only  in  alimentation,  but  in  germination, 
as  it  protects  the  embryo  from  improper  influences, 
and  in  a  great  degree  controls  the  agencies  that  stimu- 
late vitality.  It  is  composed  of  regular  cells,  filled 
witli  a  substance  called  cerealin^wliidi  by  its  action  de- 
composes starch,  coii verting  it  into  a  soluble  state,  and 
liquefies  gluten,  or,  properly  speaking,  vegetable  fibrin. 
Dough  loses  its  elasticity  by  standing,  if  this  substance 


SECTION  OF  A  GRAIN 

1.  The  Cuticle^  or  outer  skin. 
^.  The  Epidermis. 

3.  The  Epicarp. 

4.  The  Endocarp. 

5.  The  outer  covering  of  the  seed  that 

gives  color  to  the  grain. 

6.  First  layer  of  the  seed,  having 

cells  containing  cerealin. 


OF  WHEAT,  MAGNIFIED. 

7.  Second  layer  of  the  seed,  containing 

starch  and  gluten. 

8.  Third  layer  of  the  seed,  containing 

starch  and  gluten. 

9.  Interior  of  the  seed  —  nearly  pure 

starch. 
A.  The  Germ. 


[Paf/e  2C4. 


WHEAT  AND  TPIE  MANUFACTURE    OF  BKEAD.  205 


is  present  and  the  temperature  is  moderately  high. 
It  bears  a  high  temperature  without  losing  its  proper- 
ty of  liquefying  gluten,  and  it  is,  consequently,  active 
durino-  cookino;  or  bakino*.  Bread  that  contains  this 
material  liquefies  in  the  stomach  and  is  easily  digested  ; 
while  bread  that  does  not  contain  it  continues  pasty, 
is  with  difficulty  disposed  of  by  the  stomach,  and 
causes  dyspepsia  and  many  painful  symptoms.  Ani- 
mals will  die  if  they  are  fed  on  pure  white  bread,  but 
they  will  flourish  on  bread  made  from  the  same  grain 
if  it  contains  this  membrane.  In  the  one  case  the 
cerealin  is  present,  in  the  other  it  is  wanting. 

No.  7  consists  of  cells  filled  with  starch  and  glu- 
ten, and  is  the  most  nutritive  portion  of  the  grain. 

"No,  8  is  like  No.  7,  but  contains  more -starch  and 
less  gluten. 

"  No.  9  is  nearly  pure  starch,  and  is  but  slightly 
nutritious. 

"  Fine  flour  consists  almost  entirely  of  Nos.  8  and  9 
and  the  shorts  of  Nos.  6  and  7,  which  are  the  healtli^- 
est  and  most  nutritious  parts  of  the  grain.  Flour 
ought  to  contain  6,  7,  8,  and  9  ground  together ;  and 
whoever  will  devise  a  plan  by  which  this  can  be  ac- 
complished will  confer  a  blessing  on  his  fellow-beings. 
All  the  nutritious  portions  of  the  grain  were  intended 
to  be  eaten  by  man,  but  custom  gives  us  the  poorest 
j)ortion  at  the  highest  price,  under  the  name  of  '  su- 
perfine flour.' "  Flour  containing  all  the  bran  is  in- 
jurious from  the  irritating  properties  of  that  indi- 
gestible articV\ 

The  average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  wheat  is  about 
sixty  pounds.     Inferior  samples  seldom  weigh  less 


20G 


CEEEALS  AND  LEGUINfES. 


tlian  fiftj-six  pounds  ;  and  the  best  as  seldom  exceed 

sixty-two  pounds. 

A  bushel  of  wheat  of  tW  average  weight,  on  being 

ground,  will  yield  of  flour   47  pounds. 

fine  shorts   4J  " 

coarse  sliorts ....  4  " 
bran  2|  " 

Loss  of  weight  in  grinding  and  bolting,  2  " 

60  " 

As  much  flour  is  used  in  making  pastry,  cakes,  and 
various  dishes,  in  wdiich  lard,  butter,  and  other  fats 
are  employed,  and  most  indigestible  compounds  are 
thus  produced,  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  such 
compounds  are  far  more  injurious  than  the  eating 
of  buttered  baked  cakes  or  w^arm  bread.  The 
browner  these  compounds  are  baked,  the  more  per- 
nicious they  become,  as  the  fat  is  thereby  decom- 
posed, and  acrolein^  one  of  the  most  acrid  and  indi- 
gestible substances  formed  in  cooking,  is  produced 
and  retained.  The  injurious  effects  of  eating  warm 
bread  arise  from  its  insolubility,  and  are  increased  by 
the  use  of  rancid  butter.  Bread  only"  becomes  solu- 
ble after  it  has  bec(^me  perfectly  cool — about  twelve 
hours  after  baking.  By  that  time  the  cerealin  has 
rendered  the  gluten  or  vegetable  fibrin  soluble. 

The  mode  of  making  bread  claims  special  atten- 
tion. It  is  ordinarily  made  by  adding  to  a  certain 
portion  of  flour,  mixed  with  warm  water  or  milk, 
some  substance  that  will  excite  fermentation,  (as 
yeast  either  alone  or  infused  in  a  mass  of  flour  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose,)  and  thereby  dough  is  pro- 


WHEAT  AND  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BREAD.  207 


diiced  of  proper  consistency.  This  doiigli  is  kept  warm 
to  facilitate  fermentation,  foi;  which  pnrpose  a  uuiform 
temperature  of  about  ninety  degrees  is  required.  If 
the  temperature  is  below  seventy  degrees,  and  is  con- 
tinued for  a  time  below  that  point,  an  acid  is  formed  ; 
yet  the  dough  will  rise  and  make  light  bread,  but  the 
very  best  qualities  of  good  bread  will  be  lost ;  and,  al- 
though soda  may  have  been  added,  the  saccharine  prin- 
ciple will  not  be  restored.  In  such  a  case  the  delicious, 
fresh,  sweet  taste. of  well-made  bread  will  be  wanting, 
and  much  of  its  nutritious  quality  wasted.  Such  bread 
will  have  a  decided  tendency  to  generate  acid  in  the 
stomach,  and  will  possess  the  same  insipid  taste  as  un- 
fermented  bread.  On  the  contrary,  wlien  the  dough  is 
properly  fermented,  sugar  is  formed,  as  in  ^the  process 
of  malting ;  for,  altliough  in  the  one  case  we  use  flour, 
and  in  the  other  the  wliole  grain,  the  process  is  iden- 
tical— that  is,  the  chemical  action  is  the  same ;  and 
this  action  should  be  arrested  in  the  dough  at  a 
proper  time,  by  putting  it  into  the  oven  for  baking. 
As,  in  malting,  the  germinated  grain  is  heated  on  the 
kiln  to  arrest  the  chemical  process  and  secure  the 
sugar  generated  in  the  grain,  so,  in  baking,  there  is 
no  loss  of  the  gluten,  but  only  "a  change  of  starch 
and  the  organic  acids  to  form  sugar.  The  carbonic 
acid  is  set  free,  and  the  bread  is  thereby  rendered 
sweet  and  light.  To  accomplish  this  very  desirable 
end,  great  skill  must  be  exercised,  quite  as  much  as  is 
requisite  in  the  preparation  of  malt.  All  persons  at- 
tempting to  bake  loaf  bread  should  make  themselves 
proficient  in  the  art,  instead  of  "  trusting  to  luck," 
as  is  most  commonly  the  case  with  housekeepers 


208 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


who  pay  no  regard  to  careful  practice,  and  wlio,  conse- 
quently, seldom  make  two  bakings  of  bread  alike  out 
of  the  same  barrel  of  flour.  It  is  owing  to  such  very 
unskillful  and  careless  practice  that  fermented  bread 
has  been  disparaged,  and  new  processes  have  been  in- 
troduced of  pufting  up  flour  and  water  with  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which,  instead  of  developing  the  saccharine 
matter  so  very  delicious  in  well-made  bread,  leaves  it 
insipid  to  the  taste,  its  only  quality  being  that  it  does 
not  impair  the  nutritive  property  of  the  flour. 

To  obtain  a  proper  fermentation,  it  is  necessary  to 
be  prepared  with  a  small  quantity  of  yeast.  This 
must  be  well  difl*used  througli  the  whole  mass  of 
dough  made  with  warm  water  or  milk,  and  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  not  less  than  ninety  degrees.  Tlie 
dough,  when  thus  prepared,  may,  however,  be  kept 
some  twenty  degrees  above  that  point,  with  decided 
advantage  ;  for  the  quicker  the  fermentation  is  ac- 
complished the  sweeter  will  be  the  bread,  and  the 
greater  the  nutriment  it  will  contain.  To  make 
yeast,  it  is  generally  supposed  that  hops  are  essential. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Hops  only  contri- 
bute flavor,  and  for  that  purpose  they  are  used  in 
making  beer  ;  and  as  yeast  is  usually  obtained  from 
the  brewery,  it  is  thus  that  the  idea  has  become  estab- 
lished that  hops  are  necessary  to  make  yeast.  Yeast 
for  culinary  purposes,  is  readily  made  by  a  mixture 
of  milk  and  flour  formed  into  a  semi-fluid,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  not  less  than  ninety  degrees,  and  kept  at 
that  warmth  till  a  brisk  fermentation  is  established. 
It  is  then  fit  for  use,  and  suitable  for  the  fermentation 
of  dough,  or  any  purpose  for  which  yeast  is  required. 


CHAPTER  lY. 


EYE  :   ITS  QUALITIES  AND  USES. 

Rye,  as  a  nutrient,  stands  next  to  wheat — It  was  not  known  in 
ancient  India  and  Egypt — Pliny  mentions  its  cultivation — Its 
use  south  of  the  Baltic  Sea — In  Sweden  it  is  made  into  cakes — 
How  it  is  grown  in  Lapland — Fungus  growth  on  rye — Its  poi- 
sonous qualities — Favorable  condition  for  its  growth — Its  effects 
in  bread — Serious  consequences  resulting  from  it  in  various 
countries — Animals  and  insects  poisoned  by  it — Good  qualities 
of  rye — Importance  of  the  rye  crop — A  good  fertilizer — Rye 
not  so  readily  digested  as  wheat — Owing  to  its  saccharine  quali- 
ties, it  is  most  readily  malted — Is  made  into  ardent  spirits,  and 
is  much  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

RYE,  {Secale  cereale) — the  bread-seed  standing 
next  to  wheat  in  importance  as  a  nutrient  for 
man — was  not  known  in  ancient  India  or  Egypt. 
The  Greeks  obtained  it  from  Thrace  and  Macedonia. 
Pliny  mentions  its  cultivation  in  Europe  and  Asia 
between  50°  and  60°  north  latitude.  I»  America  it 
grows  between  40°  and  50°  north  latitude.  It  consti- 
tutes the  principal  bread  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  sandy  districts  south  of  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Finland,  and  not  only  forms  the  chief  article 
of  consumption  among  the  population  of  those  little 
better  than  sandy  deserts,  but  furnishes  a  suJSiciency 
for  an  export  trade  to  the  Russian  ports. 


210 


/ 

CEREALS  AND  LEGUliIES. 


In  Sweden  the  inhabitants  generally  subsist  upon 
rye  cakes,  which  are  baked  only  twice  a  year,  and 
become,  during  the  intervals,  as  hard  as  a  board. 
LiNN^us  relates  that  he  observed  in  Lapland  a  curi- 
ous practice,  w^hich  consists  of  taking  one  part  of  rye 
and  two  of  barley,  and  mixing  them  together,  and 
planting  the  seeds  so  mingled  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
capable  of  tillage  in  the  spring.  The  barley  grows 
vigorously,  ripens  early,  and  is  reaped  ;  in  the  mean 
time  the  rye,  being  overshadowed  by  the  barley, 
merely  forms  leaves,  but  after  the  latter  is  reaped, 
it  strengthens  so  as  to  establish  itself  for  the  follow- 
ing year,  when  it  yields  an  abundant  crop. 

This  very  valuable  aliment  is  subject  to  a  disease 
which  renders  it  not  only  noxious,  but  actually  poison- 
ous. The  diseased  growth  assumes  a  peculiar  form,  and 
is  called  horned  or  spurred  rye,  and,  by  the  French,  er- 
got^ from  the  fancied  resemblance  to  a  cock's  spur.  Tliis 
morbid  growth  consists  of  seemingly  solid  elongated 
masses,  which  spring  from  the  ovary  of  the  rye  and 
other  grasses.  It  is  of  a  firm  mealy  consistence,  with 
a  concrete,  scaly,  or  powdery  crust.  Willdenow, 
De  Candolle,  Fries,  Quekett,  and  Dr.  Robert 
Latham,  have  all  carefully  examined  it,  and  tlie  lat- 
ter, in  a  paj^r  read  before  the  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Cambridge,  drew 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  attacks  of  this  disease 
on  other  grasses  besides  rye  were  very  frequent,  and 
pointed  out  the  danger  of  allowing  animals  to  feed  on 
grass  so  disordered.  The  disease  is  supposed  to  be  pro- 
moted in  growth  by  wet  springs  followed  by  unusually 
hot  summers,  which  are  favorable  to  the  production  of 


rye:  its  qualities  and  uses. 


211 


all  fungi,  the  sporiiles  being  diffused,  and  only  re- 
quiring such  spring  and  summer  weather  to  make 
their  growth. 

TissoT,  a  French  physician,  has  paid  much  atten- 
tion to  the  consequences  on  the  human  system  of 
eating  spurred  rye.  Bread  made  of  rye  thus  diseased 
has  an  acrid  and  nanseous  taste,  and  its  nse  is  followed 
by  spasmodic  symptoms  and  gangrenous  disorders. 
These  effects  can  not,  by  any  means,  be  classed  among 
imaginary  evils.  In  1596,  an  epidemic  prevailed 
in  Hesse,  which  was  wholly  ascribed  to  the  use  of 
horned  rye.  Many  persons  wlio  liad  eaten  of  the 
diseased  grain  made  into  bread  were  attacked,  and 
died,  whilst  others  suffered  from  epilepsy  and  even 
insanity,  from  which  they  never  recovered.  Similar 
calamities  also  befell  the  people  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  between  the  years  1648  and  1736,  the  par- 
ticulars of  which  are  recorded  by  Burgiiart,  Hoff- 
man, and  others.  In  1Y09,  this  diseased  condition  of 
the  rye  occurred  in  a  part  of  France  to  su(^h  an  extent 
that,  in  consequence  of  it,  no  fewer  than  five  hundred 
patients  were  at  one  time  under  care  of  the  surgeons 
of  the  public  hospital  at  Orleans.  The  symptoms 
commenced  with  all  the  apparent  characteristics  of 
drunkenness,  after  w^hich  the  toes  became  diseased, 
mortified,  and  fell  off.  The  disease  then  extended 
np  the  leg,  and  frequently  attacked  tlie  body ;  and 
this  latter  sometimes  o^'curred  even  after  the  amputa- 
tion of  the  diseased  limbs. 

The  poisonous  influence  of  horned  rye  is  not  ex- 
erted  upon  human  beings  alone,  for  both  insects  and 
larger  animals  have  been  fatally  affected  by  it.  Flies 


212 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


that  merely  settled  on  it  have  heen  killed.  Deer, 
swine,  and  poultry,  npon  which  experiments  have 
been  tried  with  it,  have  all  died  miserable  deaths,  some 
ill  strong  convulsions,  others  with  mortified  ulcers. 

The  ergot  of  rye,  or,  as  it  is  termed  in  our  medical 
works,  Secale  cormttiim—m  plain  English,  horned 
rye — has  been  admitted  into  our  pharmacopoeias  as 
a  most  valuable  medicine  in  the  hands  of  skillful 
practitioners,  but,  like  all  powerful  and  useful  medi- 
caments, it  has  been  improperly  and  unskillfully  used. 

Rye  is  an  important  crop,  and  is  usually  grown  on 
light  soil.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  and  used  for 
bread,  especially  in  our  Eastern  States ;  while  it 
makes  a  cheap  and  most  excellent  food  for  cattle, 
when  mixed  and  ground  with  oats  and  corn.  The 
yield  per  acre  is  about  seventeen  bushels.  The  total 
produce  of  rye  in  the  United  States  in  1860  was,  ac- 
cording to  the  last  census,  twenty-one  million  one 
hundred  and  one  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty 
bushels. 

It  has  been  found  to  be  a  valuable  fertilizer,  if 
grown  among  corn,  and  hogged  down,  as  it  is  termed ; 
that  is,  the  grain  is  eaten  by  the  hogs  from  the  straw, 
on  the  field,  and  then  the  straw  is  plowed  in.  It 
thus  forms  a  cheap  food  for  hogs,  as  very  little  is  ex- 
pended for  labor — a  valuable  consideration,  particu- 
larly in  our  Western  States,  wliere  labor  is  so  scarce. 

Rye  rates  next  to  wheat  in  the  amount  of  gluten  or 
vegetable  fibrin  contained,  hence  its  applicability  for 
fermented  bread  ;  but  bread  made  from  rye-flour  is  not 
so  digestible  or  nutritious  as  wheaten  bread.  The  grain 
contains  about  five  parts  of  gluten  to  every  hundred 


RYE  :  ITS  QUALITIES  AND  USES. 


213 


of  saccharine  matter,  which  renders  it  suitable  for 
malting  or  making  beer  or  ardent  spirits,  of  which 
latter  there  are  about  ten  million  gallons  distilled  annu- 
ally in  this  country.  However,  the  produce  of  rye  is 
comparatively  small  to  that  of  barley,  and,  conse- 
quently, it  is  not  so  extensively  used  for  those  pur- 
poses. Eye  changes  rapidly  from  the  vinous  to  ace- 
tous fermentation,  which  renders  it  undesirable  for 
distilling. 

It  is  not  suitable  for  food  when  there  is  a  tendency 
to  acidity  of  the  stomach,  or  where  the  digestive 
powers  are  enfeebled. 

In  the  form  of  a  vegetable  acid,  rye  has  been  much 
used  by  tanners  in  the  operation  of  what  they  call 
raising^  which  is  rendering  the  hide  porous,  so  that 
it  will  more  readily  receive  the  tanning  principle 
from  the  oak  bark. 

The  grain  is  also  resorted  to  as  a  substitute  for 
colfee.  When  mixed  with  the  coffee-seed  and  roasted, 
it  absorbs  much  of  the  aroma  of  the  latter,  which 
aroma  would  otherwise  be  thrown  otf  and  lost ;  and 
if  an  excessive  quantity  of  r^^e  is  not  used,  the  addi- 
tion is  not  easily  detected  in  the  finest  qualities  of  the 
fragrant  Mocha  —  in  fact,  the  beverage  produced  is 
actually  enriched  by  the  mixture. 


CHAPTER  V. 


BARLEY,  MALTIiSTG,  AND  BREWING. 

The  countries  in  wliicli  barley  lias  been  discovered — The  several 
varieties — Cultivated  by  the  Jews  in  the  earliest  ages — Grains 
of  it  found  in  the  Eo^yptian  catacombs — Egyptian  traditions  re- 
specting it — Barley  is  best  suited  to  a  northern  climate — It  is 
not  so  nutritious  as  wheat — A  grain  the  measure  of  one  third  of 
an  inch — Barley  extensively  cultivated  for  brewing  into  malt 
liquors — Fermented  liquors  made  from  barley  at  a  very  early 
date — They  are  still  made  in  Egypt  and  Nubia — The  Anglo- 
Saxons  drank  ale  and  mead — The  old  ale  knights  of  England — 
Attachment  of  the  English  to  ale — The  introduction  of  hops  into 
ale  forbidden  by  Henry  VIII. — Large  consumption  of  malt  and 
hops  in  Great  Britain — Mode  of  manufacturing  malt — Process 
of  making  malt  liquors  —  Good  qualities  of  pure  fermented 
liquors — German  lager-beer  affords  no  nutriment,  and  is  very 
intoxicating — The  lager-beer  of  the  United  States  is  different — 
Amount  of  beer  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 

BARLEY,  {Hordeum  vulgare^  Linn.,)  an  ancient 
writer"^  informs  ns,  grew  abundantly  and  wild 
in  the  regions  between  the  Euplirates  and  the  Tigris. 
Its  native  country  is  placed  by  Willdenow  on  tlie 
banks  of  the  Samara,  a  tributary  of  the  Volga. 
C.  A.  Meyer  found  the  two-rowed  barley  {11.  disti- 
chiim)  growing  wild  between  Lenkeran  and  Baku ; 
C.  Kocii  discovered  it  on  the  steppes  of  Schirwan  in 
^  Voyage  en  Persie,  460. 


BARLEY,  MALTING,  ANT)  BREWmG. 


215 


tlie  soiitli-east  of  the  Caucasus ;  and  Kotschy  in 
Soutli-Persia.  The  six-rowed  or  winter  barley  {IT. 
hexastiehon)  has  been, the  longest  known.  The  Egyp- 
tians, Jews,  and  East-Indians  cultivated  it  in  the  ear- 
liest times,  and  grains  of  it  are  found  in  the  mum- 
mies of  the  Egyptian  catacombs.  The  sj)rat  or  battle- 
dove  barley,  {ll,  zeocriton^)  sometimes  called  the  rice 
barley,  has  shorter  and  broader  ears  than  either  of 
the  above  varieties,  and  seldom  grows  so  tall.  It  fur- 
nishes an  excellent  meal,  and  in  this  respect  is  dis- 
tinguished among  the  varieties.  Common  barley 
came  to  Europe  by  way  of  Egypt,  where,  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  the  two  and  the  six-rowed  are  still  culti- 
vated. In  ancient  Greece  both  those  varieties  were 
grown,  but  with  the  modern  Greeks  the  coipmon  and 
six-rowed  only  are  grown,  and  merely  as  fodder  for 
horses.  The  Romans  cultivated  the  two  and  the  six- 
rowed  barley  in  connection.  In  Europe,  even  to  be- 
yond the  North  Polar  Circle,  and  near  to  it  in  Asia 
and  America,  oats  and  barley  are  cultivated. 

The  Egyptians  have  a  tradition,  that  of  all  tlie 
grains,  barley  is  the  one  which  was  first  used  as  the 
food  of  man  ;  and  that  the  art  of  cultivating  it  w^as 
imparted  to  their  ancestors  by  the  goddess  7^/6',  who, 
having  discovered  the  plant  growing  wild,  instructed 
men  how  to  cultivate  it,  so  as  to  increase  the  quan- 
tity and  improve  the  quality  of  its  produce. 

We  believe,  however,  that  there  is  as  little  known 
about  the  native  country  of  barley  as  about  that  of 
wheat,  next  to  which,  at  the  present  day,  it  stands 
among  the  cereals  in  respect  to  the  amount  cultivated, 
whilst  of  cereal  products  that  are  manufactured  into 


216 


CEKEALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


stimulant  drinks,  it  ocenpies  the  head  position.  Bar- 
ley is,  under  certain  circumstances,  of  even  more  im- 
portance to  man  than  wheat.  It  can  be  cultivated 
over  a  wider  range  of  climate,  under  greater  extremes 
of  temperature,  and  in  lighter  soils  than  wheat ;  it  is 
not  so  seriously  affected  by  drought,  and  arrives  so 
much  earlier  at  maturity,  that  it  can  be  grown  in  the 
short  northern  summers  without  failure.  In  Spain, 
two  crops  can  be  harvested  within  tlie  year — one  in 
the  spring  and  tlie  other  in  autumn.  Barley  sown 
there  in  June  can  be  harvested  in  three  months  ;  and 
it  is  stated  that  in  the  northern  climates  the  growth 
is  perfected  in  a  still  shorter  time.  Linn^us  relates, 
in  his  Tour  through  Lulean  Lapland,  that  he  ob- 
served the  commencement  of  the  barley  harvest  on 
the  twenty-eighth  of  July,  although  the  seed  had 
been  sown  only  a  few  days  before  mid-summer ;  the 
grain  w^as  then  ripe,  though  not  more  than  six  weeks 
had  elapsed  between  seed-time  and  harvest. 

Barley  is  not  so  nutritious  as  wheat  ;  it  contains 
less  gluten,  more  starch,  and  a  small  quantity  of  sugar, 
w^hich  latter  wheat  does  not  possess  previous  to  fer- 
mentation, as  when  preparing  for  bread  and  germina- 
tion. The  average  length  ot  a  grain  of  barley  is  one 
third  of  an  inch,  which  is  the  linear  dimensions  of  a 
harley-corn — a  measure  formerly  in  use  in  England.*^ 

The  cultivation  of  barley  is  very  extenaive,  as  may 
be  inferred  from  the  immense  amount  of  malt  liquor 
that  is  consumed.  In  Ireland  and  Scotland  large 
quantities  of  it  are  distilled  into  whisky.  A  con- 
siderable amount  is  also  used  for  bread,  and  in  the 
*  See  Ency.  Brit.,  Art.  Brewing. 


BARLEY,  MALTING,  AND  BREWING. 


217 


preparation  of  pearl  barley  by  decortication  or  the 
removal  of  tlie  outer  skin  or  bark.  It  is  also  groniul 
into  meal  and  thus  used  for  fattening,  swine  and  feed- 
ing poultry.  In  ancient  times  horses  were  fed  upon 
barley.  Pliny  relates  that  the  Roman  gladiators  were 
called  Hordearii  in  consequence  of  tlieir  use  of  this 
grain  as  food."^ 

The  preparation  of  fermented  liquors  is  of  very  an- 
cient date.  IIp:rodotus  states  that  the  people  of 
Egypt,  being  without  vines,  made  their  wine  from 
barley.f  Dioscorides,  one  of  the  ancient  Greek 
writers,  also  attributes  the  preparation  of  fermented 
liquor  and  the  cultivation  of  barley  to  the  Egyptians. 
Pliny,  in  his  Natural  History,  gives  the  Egyptian 
name  of  this  liquid  as  Lythum.X  An  intoxicating 
drink,  used  among  the  lower  order  of  people,  is  made 
from  this  grain  at  the  present  day,  both  in  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  and  is  there  called  Bouzah,  The  same  people 
boil  the  green  ears  of  barley  in  water  and  eat  them 
with  milk.  Tacitus  also  informs  us  that,  at  tlie  period  ^ 
in  which  he  lived,  the  Germans  prepared  beer  from 
malted  grain. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  drank  ale  and  mead  ;  wine  was 
a  great  luxury  for  their  people  of  rank.  In  the  Saxon 
Decalogues,  preserved  in  the  Cotton  Library  in  the 
British  Museum,  a  boy,  who  is  questioned  upon  his 
liabits  and^tlie  uses  of  things,  replies  to  an  inquiry  as 
to  what  he  drank,  Ale,  if  I  have  it,  or  water,  if  I 
have  it  not,"  and  adds,  ''Wine  is  the  drink  of  the 
elders  and  the  wise."    Ale  was  then,  as  at  this  day, 

*  Book  xviii.  c.  7.  f  Lib.  ii.  cliap.  78. 

X  Nat.  Hist.,  lib..xxii.  cliap.  25. 


218 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


sold  to  the  people  in  houses  of  entertainment ;  but  a 
priest  was  forbidden  by  a  law  to  eat  or  drhdv  at  cea- 
peOylethium^  literally  a  place  where  ale  is  sold.^^ 

After  the  Norman  conquest  wine  became  more 
commonly  used,  and  the  vine  was  extensively  culti- 
vated in  England.  The  people,  however,  held  to  the 
beverage  of  their  forefathers  with  great  pertinacity. 
Neither  the  juice  of  the  grape  nor  of  the  apple  were 
general  favorites.  The  vassal  song  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  whose  burden  was 

"  Bring'  us  home  good  ale," 

is  indicative  of  their  attachment  to  that  beverage. 
"The  old  ale  knights  of  England,"  as  Camden  calls 
the  sturdy  yeomen  of  this  period,  knew  not,  however, 
the  ale  to  which,  in  the  next  century,  hops  gave  flavor 
and  preservation. 

Hops  appear  to  have  been  employed  in  the  brew- 
eries of  the  Netherlands  as  early  as  the  fourteenth 
century,  but  in  England  they  were  not  generally  used 
in  the  composition  of  beer  till  nearly  two  centuries 
afterward.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  the  planting  of 
hops  was  forbidden  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.  ;  and 
it  is  certain  that  Henry  YIII.  forbade  brewers  to  put 
hops  and  sulphur  into  ale.f  In  the  fifth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  VL,  it  would,  however,  appear  that 
the  royal  and  national  taste  had  for  a  time  changed, 
for  privileges  were  then  granted  to  hop  grounds. 
Tusser,  in  his  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Hus- 
bandry, printed  in  1557,  thus  sings  the  praises  of  this 
plant : 

*  Turner's  Anglo-Saxons,  vol.  iii.  f  Arcliseologj,  vol.  iii. 


BAELEY,  MALTING,  AND  BREWING. 


219 


"  The  hop  for  his  profit  I  thus  do  exalt, 
It  strengtheneth  drink  and  it  flavoreth  malt ; 
And  being  well-brewed,  long  kept  it  will  last, 
And  drawing  abide,  if  ye  draw  not  too  fast." 

In  the  reign  of  James  I.  the  plant  was  evidently 
not  sufficiently  cultivated  in  England  for  consump- 
tion, as  there  is  a  statute  of  1608  against  the  impor- 
tation of  spoiled  hops.  In  1830  there  were  forty-six 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty-seven  acres  oc- 
cupied in  the  cultivation  of  hops  in  Great  Britain  ; 
and  in  1845  the  large  amount  of  three  thousand  five 
hundred  bales  was  imported  into  that  country  from 
the  United  States. 

Above  thirty  million  bushels  of  barley  are  annually 
converted  into  malt  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  jiiore  than 
eight  million  barrels  of  beer  are  annually  brewed 
there,  of  which  four  fifths  is  strong  beer. "  In  1865 
there  were  five  hundred  and  eight  million  nine  hun- 
dred and  sixty-four  thousand  one  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-six pounds  of  barley  sent  from  the  United  States 
to  Great  Britain. 

Barley  is  the  grain  that  is  most  commonly  made 
into  malt.  The  process  consists  in  causing  it  to  ger- 
minate and  produce  a  root  about  the  length  of  the 
seed,  when  the  germination  is  suddenly  checked  by 
the  grain  being  placed  on  a  hot  kiln  to  dry.  The  ob- 
ject obtained  by  this  process  is  the  conversion  of  the 
starch  into  sugar,  which  change  is  termed  by  chem- 
ists diastase.  After  the  grain  is  perfectly  dry,  the 
roots  are  removed  from  it  by  a  machine  made  for  that 

*  See  article  on  Barley  in  "  The  Food  of  Man."  Charles  Knight 
&  Co.,  London. 


220 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


purpose,  and  the  grain  is  then  ground  into  meal, 
whicli  is  called  malt.  If  the  malt  has  been  but 
slightly  colored  by  heat,  when  brewed  it  will  produce 
a  pale  liquid  containing  much  sugar  and  nutritious 
matter  ;  but,  as  the  color  is  deepened,  the  nutritious 
quality  is  diminished. 

The  process  of  making  malt-liquor  consists  in  put- 
ting malt  into  water  heated  to  one  hundred  and  sixty 
degrees— a  little  more  water  being  required  than  the 
bulk  of  malt  used.  From  this  is  formed  in  a  few 
hours  a  transparent,  brownish,  sweet  liquid,  termed 
by  the  brewers  Qnust,  If  pure  starch  is  placed  in  the 
miLst^  it  will  dissolve  and  increase  the  strength  of  the 
beer.  ^To  the  imist  thus  formed  an  infusion  of  hops 
is  added,  which  gives  it  a  bitter  taste  in  proportion 
to  the  strength  of  the  hop  infusion,  and  is  said  to  im- 
prove the  liquor ;  it  at  least  imparts  to  it  an  anodyne 
cpiality.  The  temperature  is  tlien  reduced  to  about 
sixty  degrees,  wdien  yeast  is  added,  to  promote  fermen- 
tation ;  and  various  liquors,  such  as  strong  beer,  ale, 
porter,  and  brown-stout,  are  formed  by  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  manufacture.  Drugs,  picriG  acid^  are 
sometimes  fraudulently  used  instead  of  hops,  to  give 
bitterness  to  strong  beer.  The  most  desirable  con- 
stituent in  beer  is  malt  not  too  much  browned. 

Strong  beer,  when  carefully  made,  ought  to  contain 
about  ten  per  cent  of  nutritive  matter,  whicli  is  one 
half  as  much  as  is  contained  in  new  milk.  Hence  it 
is  used  as  a  tonic  diet  and  a  stimulant ;  but,  owing  to 
its  usually  containing  from  about  six  to  eight  percent 
of  alcohol,  too  often  to  produce  the  latter  effect. 

Ordinary  beer  very  readily  becomes  acid ;  but 


BARLEY,  MALTING,  AND  BREWING.  221 

there  is  a  variety  made  by  fermenting  at  a  very  low 
temperature — abont  forty-five  degrees — wdiicli  does 
not  become  so.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  latter  the 
yeast  separates  and  falls  to  the  bottom,  and  does  not 
act  oir  the  alcohol  which  preserves  the  liquor.  It  re- 
quires several  weeks  to  accom^plish  this  process,  when 
the  beer  is  drawn  off ;  and  the  active  nutritious  por- 
tion having  separated  and  settled  at  the  bottom,  the 
beer  will  not  change  and  become  acid  by  exposure. 
This  is  the  lager-ieer  oi  Germany,  but  not  that  of  the 
United  States.  It  affords  no  nutriment  whatever, 
and,  if  taken  in  large  quantities,  causes  intoxication, 
and  so  saturates  the  system  as  to  continue  its  intoxi- 
ating  effect  longer  than  any  other  beverage.  It  is, 
therefore,  decidedly  injurious  to  the  nervous  system. 

In  1860  there  were  used  in  the  United  States  for 
the  home  manufacture  of  malt-liquo-rs,  fifty-five  thou- 
sand bales  of  hops — two  hundred  pounds  constituting 
a  bale.  The  demand  for  these  liquors  has  been  in- 
creasing for  the  last  five  years,  more  especially  for 
that  denominated  with  us  lager-heer^  of  which,  w^e 
are  informed,  there  is  no  regular  standard  of  quality. 
It  difiers  materially  from  the  German  beer,  as  it 
readily  becomes  acid;  and  this  proves  that"  in  the 
process  of  manufacture  it  does  not  deposit  its  yeast, 
which,  with  the  alcohol  forms  vinegar.  It  is  an  in- 
ferior quality  of  beer.  There  are  manufactured  and 
consumed  annually  in  the  United  States,  three  mil- 
lion two  hundred  and  thirty-nine  thousand  five  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  barrels  of  beer  ;  while  large  im- 
portations are  received  of  Scotch  and  Burton  ale  and 
London  and  Dublin  porter. 


OIIAPTEE  VI. 


OATS5    THE    ORIGINAL  BREAD-GRAIN. 

Oatg  cultivated  two  thousand  years  ago  by  tlie  Celts  and  Germans 
— Known  to  tijo  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans — 
Used  for  bread  before  tlie  more  nutritious  grains  were  intro- 
duced— Yet  prized  in  some  peculiar  forms  of  cooking — Compared 
with  other  grains — Incidents  connected  with  the  use  of  cereals 
in  England  in  former  days — Grain  was  ground  in  a  hand-mill, 
called  a  quern — The  bread  formerly  eaten  by  the  French  pea- 
santry— Wheaten-bread  a  great  luxury  in  England  in  the  last 
century — Fatality  of  the  plague  increased  by  the  want  of  nu- 
tritious food — The  Black  Death  " — Oats  the  most  readily  grown 
of  the  cereals. 

TTIHE  native  land  of  the  common  oats  {Avena  sa- 
I  tiva^  Linn.)  is  not  known ;  but,  like  the  other 
cerealia,  this  plant  has  excited  attention  as  to  its  ori- 
ginal home,  which  has  been  located  on  the  Danube. 
It  was  cultivated  two  thousand  years  ago  by  the  Celts 
and  Germans  ;  and  has  been  transported  from  Eu- 
rope, where  it  originally  supplied  the  bread-crop,  to 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  was  known  to  the 
Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  by  whom 
also  the  grain  was  used  for  bread  ;  and  it  continued 
in  common  use  until  the  more  nutritious  cerealia  were 
generally  introduced,  when  it  became  more  and  more 
i:estricted  to  food  for  the  poor,  and  for  domestic  ani- 


OATS,  THE  ORIGINAL  BREAD-GRAIN. 


223 


mals.  Even  at  tliis  day  it  is  eaten  by  the  Irish,  and 
Scotch,  and  is  innch  prized  by  them  in  some  peculiar 
forms  of  cooking  it.  As  a  grain  it  is  quite  advan- 
tageous to  man.  The  plant  can  be  grown  where  nei- 
ther wheat  nor  barley  will  flourish,  and  it  is  the  hardi- 
est of  all  the  cereals.  In  damp,  cool  locations  it  bears 
a  tolerable-sized  grain  ;  but  it  will  not  stand  heat  and 
drought  well,  for  under  such  circumstances  its  product 
is  very  scant. 

In  contrasting  this  with  other  bread  plants  or  grasses, 
its  grain  is  found  to  contain  the  least  quantity  of  nu- 
triment to  a  given  bulk,  and  but  a  very  small  portion 
of  saccharine  matter  compared  with  barley.  It  was 
formerly  made  into  malt,  but  it  is  not  used  at  this  day 
for  that  purpose.  The  meal  is  sometipies  recom- 
mended to  very  delicate  persons  as  an  article  for  mak- 
ing a  light  diet.  In  Scotland  it  is  made  into  por- 
ridge and  thin  cakes,  which  are  eaten  by  all  classes, 
the  poorer  almost  entirely  subsisting  thereon. 

A  little  book  entitled  "Vegetable  Substances  used 
for  the  Food  of  Man""^'  contains  an  exceedingly  inter- 
esting history  of  the  oat.  From  this  work  we  tran- 
scribe a  few  extracts  which  give  an  idea  of  the  use 
of  the  cereal i a  in  England  in  past  times. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  monks  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Ed- 
mond,  in  the  eighth  century,  ate  barley-bread,  be- 
cause the  income  of  the  establishment  would  not  ad- 
mit of  their  feeding  twice  or  thrice  a  day  on  wheaten 
bread. f  The  English  laborers  of  the  southern  and 
midland  counties,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 

*  Published  by  Charles  Knight  &  Co.,  London. 

f  Turner's  Hist,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  vol.  iii.  p.  25. 


224 


CEREALS  AXD  LEGUMES. 


century,  refused  to  eat  bread  made  of  one  third  wheat, 
one  third  rye,  and  one  third  barley,  saying  that  "  they 
had  lost  their  rye  teeth. ""^ 

In  a  valuation  of  Colchester,  in  the  year  1296,  al- 
most every  family  was  supplied  with  a  small  store  of 
barley  and  oats.  Scarcely  any  wheat  is  noticed  in  the 
inventory,  and  very  little  rye.f 

At  that  day  the  grain  w^as  usually  ground  at  home 
in  a  hand-mill,  called  a  qitern^  although  wind  and 
water  mills  were  not  uncommon.  The  general  use  of 
tlie  latter  machines  was  probably  prevented  by  the 
compulsory  laws  by  which  the  tenant  was  under  ob- 
ligation to  grind  his  grain  at  the  lord's  mill ;  and, 
therefore,  to  evade  the  tax  called  mxdture^  the  labor 
of  the  hand-mill  was  endured.  In  Wickliff's  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  there  is  a  passage  in  the  twenty- 
fourth  chapter  of  St.  Matthew  thus  rendered  :  Two 
wymmen  schulen  (shall)  be  gryndynge  in  a  querne.'' 
Harrison,  the  historian,  two  centuries  later,  states  that 
his  w^fe  ground  her  malt  at  home  upon  the  quern. 

The  author  of  The  Food  of  Man"  states  that  the 
English  laborers  had  better  food  than  the  French, 
who,  in  the  fifteenth  centurj^,  were  thus  described  by 
FoRTESCUE  :  Thay  drynke  water,  tliay  eate  apples, 
with  bread  right  brown,  made  of  rye."  Locke,  tra- 
veling in  France,  in  1678,  remarked  of  the  peasantry,, 
in  his  journal,  Their  ordinary  food,  rye  bread  and 
water.":]:  A  century  earlier  Harrison  said  of  tlie 
agricultural  population  of  England :  As  for  wheaten 
bread  they  eat  it  when  they  can  reach  unto  the  price 


*  Eden's  Hist,  of  the  Poor,  vol.  i.  p.  526. 

f  Capital  and  Labor,  p.  68.  %  Lord  King's  Life  of  Locke. 


OATS,  THE  ORIGINAL  BREAD-GEAIN. 


225 


of  it,  contenting  themselves,  in  tlie  mean  time,  with 
bread  made  of  oats  or  barley,  a  poor  estate,  God 
wot !"  This  last-named  author,  in  describing  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  bread  eaten^at  that  day,  after  giving  a 
description  of  several  varieties,  states  :  "  Of  tlie  latter 
(brown  bread)  there  were  two  sorts ;  one  baked  as  it 
cometh  from  the  mill,  so  that  neither  tlie  bran  nor  the 
floure  are  any  whit  diminished.  The  other  hath  no 
flonre  left  therein  at  all ;  and  it  is  not  only  the  worst 
and  weakest  of  all  the  other  sorts,  but  also  appointed 
in  old  time  for  servants,  slaves,  and  the  inferior  kind 
of  people  to  feed  upon.  Hereunto,  likewise  because  it 
is  drie  and  brickie  in  the  working,  some  add  a  portion 
ot  rie-meale  in  our  time,  whereby  the  rough  drinesse 
thereof  is  somewhat  qualified,  and  then  ^it  is  named 
mescelin,  that  is,  bread  made  of  mingled  corne.""^" 

In  the  Ilouseliold  Book  of  Sir  Edward  Coke,  in  1596, 
will  be  found  entries  of  oatmeal  for  the  use  of  the  house, 
besides  ^'otmele  to  make  the  poore  folkes  porage." 
About  1750  there  was  so  small  a  qnantity  of  wheat 
used  in  England  that  it  is  stated  in  Eden's  History 
of  the  Poor "  In  the  county  of  Cumberland,  it  was 
only  a  rich  family  that  used  a  peck  of  wheat  in  the 
course  of  the  year,  and  that  was  used  at  Christmas. 
The  usual  treat  for  a  stranger  was  a  thick  oat  cake 
(called  haverbannock)  and  butter.  About  this  time, 
an  old  laborer  of  eighty-five  remarks,  that,  when  he 
was  a  boy,  he  was  at  Carlisle  mai'ket  with  his  father, 
and,  wishing  to  indulge  himself  with  a  penny  loaf 
made  of  wheat  flour,  he  searched  for  it  for  some  time, 

*  Percy's  Preface  to  the  North umberland  Household  Book, 
Nicholas's  edit.  p.  xiv. 


226 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


but  could  not  procure  a  piece  of  wlieat  bread  at  any 
shop  in  the  town." 

We  ^YOukl  Iiere  request  attention  to  a  very  important 
consideration  in  relation  to  the  influence  of  nutritious 
food ;  and  would  ask,  Is  it  not  thd  primary  modifying 
influence  that  supplies  the  power  of  resistance  to  the 
encroachment  of  malignant  disease  ?  We  believe  that 
all  other  sanitary  means  are  only  auxiliary  in  a  minor 
degree ;  and  that  the  fatalit^'  of  the  plague,  which  so 
fearfully  destroyed  mankind,  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  enfeebled  condition  of  the  lower  classes,  living 
in  crowded  cities,  and  subsisting  upon  such  meagre 
diet  as  the  liistorians  of  the  period  describe;  for, 
from  1296  to  1Y97,  the  period  covered  by  our  extracts, 
more  fearful  scourges  visited  the  earth  than  have  been 
known  of  before  or  since. 

One  of  the  most  fatal  epidemics,  if  not  the  most 
fatal  that  history  records,  was  that  which  is  known 
as  the  "  Black  Death,"  and  occurred  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  It  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
Cathay,  (China,)  and  to  have  traveled  west,  observing 
the  course  of  plagues  generally,  as  did  the.  epidemic 
cholera  which  has  visited  us  several  times.  That 
most  terrible  pestilence  commenced  in  1345,  and  con- 
tinued its  ravages  with  such  destruction  that  at  least 
one  half  if  not  two  thirds  of  the  human  race  perished 
in  about  eight  years.  It  was  most  fatal  in  cities,  and 
fell  principally  upon  the  poorer  classes  of  society.  In 
some  places  it  only  left  one  out  of  three,  or  one  out  of 
five,  and  many  were  wholly  depopulated.  In  London, 
50,000  dead  bodies  were  buried  in  one  graveyard ;  in 
Venice,  100,000  persons  perished  by  it ;  in  Florence, 


OATS,  THE  ORIGINAL  BREAD-GRAIK. 


227 


the  same  number ;  and  in  Lubec,  90,000.  In  Asia,  it 
destroyed  nearly  twenty-four  millions  in  one  year.  In 
Spain,  the  disease  raged  three  years,  and  carried  off 
two  thirds  of  the  people.  This  plague  remained  in 
England  about  a  year,  and  during  that  time  scat- 
tered such  destruction  that  out  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion hardly  one  person  in  ten  was  left  alive.  Inl 
Ireland,  great  liavoc  was  made  among  the  English 
settled  in  that  island,  but  the  native  Irish  were  little 
affected,  particularly  those  who  dwelt  in  hilly  dis- 
tricts. 

Plagues  of  more  or  less  severity  visited  the  world 
up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  but  the 
plague  pro])er  has,  from  that  date,  confined  itself  to  a 
few  outbreaks  in  oriental  cities.  It  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared from  the  rest  of  the  woild  since  agriculture  ' 
became  a  studied  science,  and  the  people  found  them- 
selves liberally  supplied  with  nutritious  food. 

Oats  are  the  most  readily  grown,  under  unfavor- 
able circumstances,  of  all  the  cerealia  ;  and  it  is  to 
this  cause  we  may  infer  that  they  were  more  culti- 
vated than  any  others  of  the  cereals  during  those 
early  periods  in  which  the  world  possessed  so  limited 
a  knowledge  of  agricultural  science.  Farming  was  , 
then  considered  as  but  a  mere  drudgery  that  was 
forced  upon  a  certain  class  by  the  increase  of  popula- 
tion. 


CHABTER  VIL 


RICE  ;  ITS  USES  AND  CULTIVATIOlC; 

Rice  a  marsli  plant — Known  3000  years  before  the  Chris^i^jiEi  era- 
Contains  the  least  nutriment  of  all  the  cerealia — Is  much  cul- 
tivated in  all  warm  climates — Was  known  to  Strabo,  and  grown 
in  Babylon  and  Syria — Its  great  value  in  North- America — When 
introduced,  and  by  whom — The  rice  grown  in  Carolina  and 
Georgia  is  the  finest  in  the  world— Rice  is  made  into  various 
dishes  of  cookery — Is  boiled  and  eaten  with  milk  or  molasses — 
An  excellent  diet  for  children — Prevents  thirst  when  eaten  after 
salt  meats— The  efF^ects  of  fluids  in  regard  to  digestion — How  to 
remove  the  ailments  caused  by  over  indulgence  in  rich  food — The 
caltivation  of  rice  in  Georgia  and  South-Carolina — The  bobolink, 
or  rice-bird— 'Its  destructive  habits  in  the  rice-field — The  Chinese 
make  a  kind  of  wine  out  of  rice,  and  the  people  of  the  East  dis- 
till from  it  ardent  spirits. 

RICE  {Oryza  sativa)  is  a  marsli  plant,  indigenous 
to  a  warm  climate,  and  was  known  3000  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  It  has  a  near  resemblance 
to  barley  in  its  growth,  but  it  contains  the  least  nutri- 
ment of  all  the  cerealia.  It  is  supposed  to  have  orig- 
inated in  the  East-Indies,  and,  it  is  stated,  in  the  Sun- 
da  Islands.  It  is  now,  and  has  l)een  for  ages  past, 
cultivated  in  the  whole  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia, 
in  Northern  Africa,  and  in  Southern  Europe.  It  was 
known  in  the  days  of  Strabo,  and  was  grown  in  Baby- 
lon, Susiana,  and  Syria.     It  was  introduced  into 


eice:  its  uses  and  cultiyation. 


229 


Sicily  by  the  Arabians.  In  tlie  empire  of  China  and 
throughout  the  continents  and  islands  of  the  East-In- 
dies, the  people  live  almost  exclusively  on  rice  and 
olive  oil ;  for  rice  is  the  reliable  food  of  those  parts 
of  the  Old  World. 

The  introduction  of  rice  into  the  l^orth-American 
colonies  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  great  events 
which  has  contributed  to  the  accumulation  of  wealth 
in  our  Southern  States,  and  was  the  result  of  a  fortu- 
itous circumstance.  It  occurred  in  the  year  1694, 
when  Thomas  Smith,  a  planter  of  South-Carolina,  an 
enterprising  gentleman  and  much  praised  for  his 
prudent  administration,  was  Governor  of 'that  col- 
ony."^ A  v(^s.-el  from  Madagascar,  on  her  homeward 
voj^age  to  Britain,  happening  to  call  at  Charleston, 
the  captain  presented  the  Governor  with  a  bag  of 
rice,  which  cereal  he  said  he  had  seen  growing  in 
eastern  countries,  where  it  was  deemed  excellent  food, 
and  yielded  a  prodigious  increase.  The  Governor  di- 
vided the  rice  between  several  of  his  friends,  who 
cultivated  it,  and  found  the  result  to  exceed  their 
most  sanguine  expectations.  And  from  this  circum- 
stance Carolina  dates  tlie  rise  of  one  of  tlie  staple  com- 
modities which  have  tended  to  increase  lier  opulence. 

The  rice  grown  in  Carolina  and  Georgia  is  the 
finest  in  the  world,  far  exceeding  in  quality  any 
grown  in  the  countries  whence  the  seed  was  obtained. 
There  is  a  constant  demand  for  it  at  home  and  abroad. 
Still,  rice  has  never  been  made  a  reliable  bread  grain 
in  this  country,  where  it  is  simply  en:i ployed  in  the 
production  of  various  dishes  of  cookery,  but  by  no 
^Hinton's  History  of  tlie  United  States,  vol.  i.  p.  207. 


230 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


means  to  the  exclusion  of  such  other  bread  grains  as 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  rye.  When  boiled  in  the 
grain  until  it  becomes  tender,  and  tlien  eaten  with 
milk,  it  forms  an  excellent  light  diet  and  an  admirable 
food  for  children,  for  which  j^urposes  it  is  much  used  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  Eaten  with  molasses,  it  is 
taken  as  a  dessert  by  the  laboring  classes,  and  w^ith 
much  advantage  to  their  health,  particularly  when  it 
is  partaken  of  after  salted  meats,  as  it  prevents  a  thirst 
for  water,  the  quenching  of  which  would  cause  dilution 
of  the  digestive  secretions.  We  would  here  remark 
that  it  is  a  most  injurious  practice,  and  one  that  be- 
comes habitual  with  many,  for  persons,  when  eating 
their  regular  meals,  to  take  a  quantity  of  coifee,  tea, 
soup,  etc.  They  will  also  drink  several  half-pints  of 
w^ater — half  a  pint  being  the  usual  quantity  contained 
in  an  ordinary  tumbler  or  goblet.  This  habit  often  in- 
duces dyspepsia,  and  injures  weak  digestive  powers. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  drinking  large  quantities  of 
fluids  of  any  kind  immediately  before  eating.  The 
direct  tendency  of  such  practice  is  to  dilute  the  diges- 
tive secretions  and  thus  to  impair  their  wonted  func- 
tions in  the  process  of  digestion. 

Persons,  especially  those  residing  in  cities,  too  often 
indulge  in  eating  rich  dishes  and  indigestible  com- 
pounds, and  thereby  induce  an  abnormal  condition  of 
the  stomach,  wdiicli  results  in  morbid  secretions.  For 
these  a  curative  may  be  found  in  the  drinking  of  large 
quantities  of  water,  (whether  containing  mineral  salts 
or  not,)  two  or  three  hours  before  or  after  micals, 
and  more  especially  if  the  diet  is  then  limited  to  plain 
bread  and  meat,  boiled  rice,  and  fruit,  no  fluid  being 


eice;  its  uses  and  cultivation. 


231 


taken  during  the  meal.  But,  in  all  sucli  cases,  a  cure 
would  be  greatly  accelerated  by  a  bracing  country 
atmosphere,  and  by  well-regulated  exercise  in  order 
to  engender  strength,  care  being  taken  to  avoid 
fatigue,  which  under  all  circumstances  must  be  strict- 
ly regarded  as  an  indication  to  take  rest,  and  as  na- 
ture's monitor  to  the  invalid. 

As  the  cultivation  of  rice  in  the  United  States  is 
confined  to  a  mere  locality,  the  reader  will  be  inter- 
ested by  a  description  of  the  mode  of  culture  adopted 
in  South-Carolina  and  Georgia.  The  ground  is  pre- 
pared by  the  furrowing  out  of  trenches,  about  eighteen 
inches  apart,  wdiich  operation  is  performed  about  the 
first  of  IVLarch  ;  the  seed  is  then  sown  in  st;*aight  lines, 
by  negro  women,  after  which  the  water,  wliich  has 
been  prevented  from  overflowing  the  ground  by  dikes 
and  flood-gates,  is  allowed  to  flow  over  it  to  the 
depth  of  several  inches,  and  to  remain  upon  it  for  a 
week.  This  promotes  the  germination  of  the  seed  ; 
and,  in  about  four  weeks  from  the  time  that  the  water 
has  been  drawn  off,  the  plant  will  have  grown  to  the 
height  of  three  or  four  inches.  Then  the  flood-gates 
are  again  opened,  and  the  field  is  once  more  overflowed, 
and  continued  so  for  about  two  weeks,  for  tlie  purpose 
of  destroying  the  grass  and  weeds  that  have  sprung  up 
with  the  rice.  After  this  the  water  is  again  withdrawn 
and  kept  off,  and  the  rice  frequently  hoed  to  keep  down 
the  weeds  and  loosen  the  soil  about  the  roots.  It  is 
reaped  about  the  first  of  September,  the  harvest  some- 
times continuing  to  October.  The  work  is  done  -by 
negro  men  and  women,  who  suffer  much  from  sickness 
during  its  perform.ance. 


232 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


About  the  time  the  riee-heads  begin  to  fill  and  the 
grains  to  be  fnlly  develo23ed,  constant  vigilance  has 
to  be  kept  by  the  negro  children,  in  order  to  drive 
off  what  is  known  in  that  locality  as  the  rice-hird, 
but,  from  the  peculiarity  of  its  note  or  song,  is  called 
in  the  Northern  States  the  bobolink.  This  being 
a  very  musical  bird,  it  is  much  prized  as  a  cage 
bird,  and,  among  naturalists,  bears  the  name  of  the 
Erriberiza  oryzivora.  The  male  b-ird  is  rather  hand- 
some, and  is  six  or  seven  inches  long.  The  head 
and  under  part  of  the  body  are  black ;  the  back  is  a 
mixture  of  black,  white,  and  yellow ;  and  the  legs 
are  red.  In  spring  and  early  summer  these  birds 
breed  in  the  Northern  States,  and,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  August,  migrate  to  the  rice-fields,  first  visiting 
those  of  the  island  of  Cuba,  where  the  crop  ripens  the 
earliest,  and  then  proceeding  to  those  of  South-Caro- 
lina and  Georgia.  They  migrate  in  the  night  and  in 
immense  flocks,  and  are  heard  by  the  sailors  at  sea  as 
they  pass  over  the  ocean  on  their  way  to  the  rice-fields, 
where  in  a  few  weeks  they  get  so  fat  as  to  be  enabled 
only  to  fly  with  difficulty.  They  are  often  shot,  and 
eaten  as  a  great  delicacy. 

The  Chinese  make  from  rice  a  kind  of  wine  which 
resembles  a  white  wine  known  as  Xeres  j  but  the 
mode  of  manufacture  is  not  known  to  others.  In  the 
East,  ardent  spirits  are  to  a  considerable  amount  manu 
factured  from  tliis  cereal. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


INDIAN  CORN  AND  ITS  PKEPAKATIONS. 

« 

Indian  corn  indigenous  to  America — Cultivated  by  the  Indians,  but 
not  mentioned  by  tlie  first  voyagers  to  Virginia — Hospitality  of 
the  natives — During  Grandville's  second  visit,  Lane  learned  to 
smoke  tobacco,  and  afterward  introduced  it  into  England — Cap- 
tain Smith  obtained  maize  from  the  natives — First  slaves  intro- 
duced into  Virginia — Maize  now  cultivated  in  Egypt,  India, 
China,  Greece,  and  Italy — The  Mexican  Indians  pl-epared  sugar 
from  maize,  also  spirituous  liquors  and  common  drinks — Large 
quantities  distilled  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States — Used 
for  fattening  cattle — Its  fattening  and  muscle-making  properties 
compared  with  those  of  other  plants — Agricultural  products  of 
the  United  States — Unripe  corn  considered  a  delicacy — Prepara- 
tions from  corn — Corn-bread  only  suitable  food  for  healthy  per- 
sons— Much  eaten  in  the  Southern  States — Why  it  is  not  injuri- 
ous— Cooling  effect  of  perspiration — Carbonaceous  food  gene- 
rates  fat,  bile,  or  sugar — Starch  conduces  to  diabetes — Proper 
food  for  a  warm  climate,  and  for  children  confined  to  the  house. 

INDIAN  COEN,  or  Maize,  {Zea  mays,)  being  so 
common  in  the  United  States,  requires  no  de- 
scription. Naturalists  all  agree  in  determining  its 
native  region  to  be  America,  where  the  Indians  were 
found  cultivating  it  w^hen  the  country  was  first  dis- 
covered ;  although  it  is  strange  that  it  was  not  seen,  or 
rather  is  not  related  to  have  been  seen,  by  the  first  voy- 
agers to  Virginia  in  1584."^  The  historian  states  that 
*Hakluyt,  vol.  iii,  pp.  248,  249. 


234 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


Amadas  and  Barlow,  on  making  tlieir  first  visit  to  that 
colony,  near  the  mouth  of  Albemarle  Sound,  were  seve- 
ral times  visited  by  the  natives,  and  finally  made  a  visit 
to  them  on  an  island  called  Roanoake,  some  twenty 
miles  up  the  river.  When  they  came  to  the  island, 
they  found  at  the  north  end  a  village  of  nine  houses, 
built  of  cedar  and  carefully  fortified.  Here  they  were 
received  by  the  wife  of  an  Indian  chief  named  Gran- 
GANiMO,  who,  after  they  had  dried  themselves,  placed 
before  them  to  eat  some  "  wlieate  like  fermente  ;  sodden 
venison  and  roasted  ;  fish,  sodden,  boyled,  and  roasted  ; 
melons  rawe  and  sodden ;  roots  of  divers  kindes;  and 
divers  fruits."  The  drink  of  these  people  was  found 
to  be  commonly  water, but,  adds  the  narrator,  ''while 
the  grape  lasteth  they  drinke  wine,  and,  for  want  of 
caskes  to  keep  it  all  the  year  after,  they  drinke  water, 
but  it  is  sodden  [which  must  mean  prepared]  with 
ginger  in  it  and  black  sinamon,  and  sometimes  sassa- 
fras and  divers  other  wholesome  and  medicinable 
herbes  and  trees."  In  the  friendly  repast  offered  the 
travelers  there  is  no  mention  of  Indian  corn,  unless 
the  "  wheten  ferment"  was  made  of  it,  and  what  ren- 
ders this  view  most  probable  is  that  wheat  was  not 
cultivated  or  known  by  the  natives. 

This  chiefs  wife  (and,  if  a  fair  representative  of  the 
people,  they  were  most  hospitable)  tendered  her  guests 
the  utmost  kindness  with  the  greatest  possible  sim- 
plicity. The  narrator  states  that  "she  commanded 
her  people  to  drawe  the  t)oate  on  shore  from  the  beat- 
ing of  the  billoe,  others  she  appointed  to  carry  us  on 
their  backes  to  the  dry  gl*ound,  and  others  to  bring  our 
oars  into  the  house  for  fear  of  stealing.    When  wo 


INDIA^iT  CORN  AND  ITS  PREPARATIONS.  235 


were  come  into  the  outter  roome,  having  five  in  her 
house,  she  caused  us  to  sit  downe  by  a  great  fire,  and 
after  tooke  off*  our  cloathes  and  washed  them,  and  dried 
them  againe ;  some  of  the  women  phicked  of  our  stock- 
ings and  washed  them  ;  some  washed  our  feete  iu 
warm  water,  and  she  herself  tooke  great  paines  to  see 
all  things  ordered  in  the  best  manner  she  could,  mak- 
ing great  haste  to  dresse  some  meate  for  us  to  eate. 

"  We  were  entertained  with  all  love  and  kindnesse, 
and  with  as  much  bountie,  after  their  manner,  as  tiiey 
could  possibly  devise.  We  found  the  people  most  * 
gentle,  lovang,  and  faithful,  voide  of  all  guile  and  trea- 
son, and  such  as  live  after  the  manner  of  the  golden 
age.  Their  meat  is  very  well  sodden,  and^they  make 
broth  very  sweet  and  savorie  ;  their  vessels  are  earthen 
pots,  very  large,  white,  and  sweete;  their  dishes  are 
wooden  platters  of  sweet  timber.'*' 

In  1586,  Granville  made  his  second  voyage,  and 
Heriot  described  the  inhabitants  and  the  country. 
Lane,  the  associate  of  Granville,  then  learned  to 
smoke  tobacco  and  relish  it,  and  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  commodity  into  England.  Since  that  early 
period,  the  propensity  to  indulge  in  the  intoxicating 
influence  of  this  nauseous  weed  has  so  increased  that 
267,267,920  pounds  were  sold  in  the  United  States  in 
the  year  1865  ;  the  average  cost  of  manufacturing  it 
being  probably  about  one  dollar  per  pound.  This 
useless  expenditure  of  money  for  a  worse  than  useless 
indulgence  would  pay  our  public  debt  of  two  and  a 
half  billions  in  less  than  ten  years. 

In  May,  1607,  Captain  John  Smith  obtained  corn 
{maize)  from  the  natives  in  Virginia,  and  he  states 


236 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


that  it  became  the  common  food  of  tlie  new  inhabi- 
tants, and  was  not  only  tlieir  main  reliance  for  many 
years,  bnt  the  favorite  bread  grain  in  that  part  of  the 
conntry  of  the  Avhlte  people,  the  natives,  and  the 
slaves ;  some  twenty  Africans  having  been  purchased, 
in  June,  1619,  from  a  Dntcli  ship  in  the  James  river. 
These  were  the  first  slaves  introduced  into  the  colo- 
nies ;  and  their  introduction  inflicted  upon  us  a  most 
grievous  ill,  which  time  atoned  for  by  the  sacrifice  of 
several  hundred  thousand  lives. 

It  is  admitted  by  all  tliat  maize  or  Indian  corn  was 
unknown  to  Europeans  before  the  discovery  of 
America.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  Egypt,  India,  and 
China — to  the  inhabitants  of  wdiich  countries  it  was 
also  unknown  previous  to  the  discovery  of  this  conti- 
nent— and  it  is  likewise  raised  in  Greece  and  Italy.  It 
grows  and  produces  grain  in  America  from  the  south- 
ern tropic  to  50^  north  latitude.  In  Africa  it  is  culti- 
vated on  the  western  coast  and  to  some  distance  in  the 
interior  ;  and  on  the  northern,  upon  the  lands  border- 
ing the  Mediterranean.  It  is  supposed  to  be  indige- 
nous to  Central  America,  and  was,  it  is  stated,  carried 
to  Mexico  by  the  Zoltecs.  The  Peruvians  make  it 
their  principal  bread  grain,  and  use  it  in  various  pre- 
parations. The  Mexicans  dedicated  this  grain,  as  the 
first-fruit,  to  their  god  Cintentl,  (from  Centli,  maize,) 
m  a  similar  manner  to  the  dedication  of  wheat  by  the 
Greeks  to  their  Demeter. 

Humboldt  states  that  the  Mexican  Indians,  previ- 
ous to  the  conquest  of  their  country,  were  accustom- 
ed not  only  to  express  the  sweet  juice  from  maize- 
stalks,  for  the  purpose  of  fermenting  it  into  intoxicat- 


INDIAN  CORN  AND  ITS  PREPARATIONS. 


237 


ing  liquor,  but  that  tliey  boiled  it  down  to  the  consis- 
tence of  a  sirup,  whicli,  in  his  ojjinion,  they  were 
able  to  make  into  sugar.  In  confirmation  of  this 
opinion  he  recites  a  letter  w^ritten  by  Cortez,  who,  in 
describing  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  tlie  various  pro- 
ductions, both  natural  and  manufactured,  which  he 
found  in  the  new  country,  asserts  that  among  these 
were  seen  "  honey  of  the  bees  and  wax ;  honey  from 
the  stalks  of  maize,  which  are  as  sv/eet  as  sugar-cane; 
and  honey  from  the  shrub  which  the  people  call 
maguey,  {Agave  Americana,)  The  natives  make 
sugar  from  these  plants,  and  this  sugar  they  also 
sell." 

Humboldt  furtJier  informs  us  that  the  Mexican  In- 
dians still  produce  from  the  juice  or  sugar  made  from 
maize  several  fermented  liquors,  some  of  which  resem- 
ble beer,  w^iile  others  are  like  cider  ;  and  a  spirituous 
liquor  called  jptdque  de  iiiahis^  or  thaouili.  Other 
more  common  beverages  made  from  maize  are  known 
in  that  country  by  the  name  of  chicha. 

In  our  Southern  and  Western  States,  large  quanti- 
ties of  Indian  corn  are  distilled  into  spirituous  liquor. 
This  grain  constitutes  the  principal  crop  i-aised  in 
many  localities,  where  it  is  used  not  only  for  distilla- 
tion, but  for  the  fattening  of  hogs  and  cattle,  and  for 
the  food  of  the  people.  Whisky,  hogs,  and  cattle  are 
found  to  be  more  readily  transported  to  market,  and 
with  less  expense,  than  the  grain. 

Corn  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  profita- 
ble crops  of  grain  grown  in  the  Western  States. 
With  a  little  extra  cultivation,  there  have  been 
raised  263  bushels  of  Indian  corn  upon  one  acre  of 


288 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


ground  in  the  State  of  Indiana,  and  not  upon  a  single 
acre,  bnt  npon  eacli  one  of  a  ten-acre  field.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  from  115  to  180  bushels  have 
been  gathered  per  acre  off  rich  alluvial  soil. 

"The  authorit)^  from  which  we  derive  the  last-named 
facts  states  that  a  vast  portion  of  the  crop  is  con- 
sumed by  turning  hogs  out  upon  it  as  soon  as  the 
grain  begins  to  harden,  about  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber. By  this  means  the  produce  of  the  land  is  re- 
turned to  the  ground,  in  the  form  of  the  rich  manure 
of  the  hogs,  which  only  take  away  the  increased  fat 
they  accumulate.  This  mode  has  sustained  the  soil 
in  producing  great  crops. 

The  advantages  of  employing  Indian  corn  for  the 
fattening  of  these  animals  will  be  elucidated  by  a 
comparison  of  the  amount  of  fat-producing  material 
contained  in  that  grain  with  the  amount  found  in  the 
potato,  and  by  contrasting  the  total  amount  an  acre 
of  land  will  yield  from  the  two  products.  For  the 
first  we  have  the  well-ascertained  fact  that  100 
pounds  of  corn  contain  73  pounds  of  fat-producing 
elements,  and  that  the  same  number  of  pounds  of 
potatoes  contain  only  55  pounds  of  those  elements. 
And,  if  we  adopt  this  basis,  and  calculate  that  an 
acre  of  w^ ell-cultivated  land  will  produce  180  bushels 
of  corn  or  200  bushels  of  potatoes,  which  at  GO  pounds 
to  the  bushel  will  give  a  total  of  10,800  pounds  of  the 
former  and  of  12,000  pounds  of  the  latter,  we  find 
that  the  crop  of  corn  will  yield  7884:  pounds  of  fat- 
producing  elements,  while  that  of  potatoes  will  supply 
only  6600  pounds.  This  exhibits  a  difference  of  1284 
pounds,  or  more  than  twenty  per  cent,  in  favor  of  corn 


INDIAN^CORN  AND  ITS  PREPARATIONS. 


239 


— an  important  consideration  to  the  farmer  in  feeding 
stock,  whether  for  market  or  for  home  consumption. 

As  we  liave  here  introduced  tlie  subject  of  com- 
parison as  to  the  organic  elements  of  corn  and  pota- 
toes, we  will  state  the  comparative  quantity  of  muscle- 
making  elements  contained  in  each.  In  Indian  corn 
we  have  about  twenty-seven  per  cent  of  muscle-pro- 
ducing material,  and  in  potatoes  forty-five  per  cent. 
Consequently,  a  man  must  eat  a  largely  increased 
weight  of  corn  to  that  of  potatoes  to  obtain  an  equal 
amount  of  strength  ;  and  thus  potatoes  are  superior 
to  corn  as  a  nutriment  for  man.  Wheat-flour,  how- 
ever, contains  over  sixty  per  cent,  and  affords  more 
than  double  the  nutriment  contained  in  Indian  corn  ; 
therefore,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  wheat- flour 
is  the  cheaper.  The  average  price  in  the  port  of 
New- York  for  Indian  corn,  jier  bushel,  for  four  years, 
was  seventy-seven  cents  ;  and  of  wlieat,  per  bushel,  for 
the  same  time,  one  dollar  and  fifty-six  cents.  This 
determines  that  wheat  produces  the  most  economical 
bread  in  our  cities,  and  it  is  without  doubt  the  most 
palatable  to  the  poor.  To  make  up  the  deficiency  in 
quantity,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  appetite,  potatoes  are 
the  most  suitable  for  persons  who  are  either  unaccus- 
tomed to  eating  corn-bread,  or  to  whom  it  is  unpalata- 
ble. Those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  eat  it  prefer 
it  to  all  others  ;  and  it  is  more  or  less  eaten  by  our  na- 
tive-born citizens  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  By  them 
cor!2  flour  is  frequently  combined  or  mixed  with  flour 
mavl'd  from  wheat,  rye,  or  buckwheat ;  but  there  is 
only  a  small  portion  of  flour  thus  mixed  consumed  in 
bread  in  comparison  to  the  amount  grown. 


240 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMESr 


Indian  corn  is  the  leading  agricnltural  product  of  the 
United  States,  as  set  forth  in  the  census  returns  for 
I86O5  during  the  ten  years  previous  to  which  the  coun- 
try was  most  prosperous.  The  following  table  gives 
the  production  of  tlie  leading  staples  of  the  country 
in  the  year  in  which  tlie  census  was  taken,  with  the 
value  of  the  crop  of  each  at  the  average  wholesale 
prices  of  that  year  : 


Products. 

Quantity. 

Price. 

Value. 

.  busliels 

838,793,740 

$0  77 

$645,870,410 

Wheat  

173,104,924 

1  56 

270,043,681 

172,643,185 

0  43 

64,236,570 

2,154,820,800 

0  12 

258,578,496 

434,209,461 

0  8 

34,736,757 

187,167,032 

0 

8,419,816 

A  large  amount  of  Indian  corn  is  eaten  before 
it  has  fully  hardened  in  the  ear,  and,  wdien  rather 
hard,  is  very  irritating  to  the  stomach  and  bowels  of 
delicate  persons.  In  this  unripe  state,  when  boiled 
in  the  ear  for  the  table,  it  is  generally  considered 
a  delicacy,  especially  the  variety  known  as  "  sweet 
corn."  Of  other  varieties,  when  ripe,  numerous 
dishes  are  made  from  preparations  known  as  samp, 
hominy,  farina,  grits,  and  flour  of  the  farina.  The 
latter  is  designated  as  corn-starcli^  and  is  made  into 
delicious  puddings  and  delicate  preparations  very 
suitable  for  the  sick.  Both  bread  and  cake  are  made 
out  of  corn-meal ;  and  the  higher  classes  of  persons 
have  expensive  compounds  produced  from  it  by  the 


INDIAN  COKN  AND  ITS  PKEPAKATIONS. 


241 


addition  of  eggs,  milk,  and  sugar.  These  compounds 
are  palatable  and  nutritious,  but  very  hard  to  digest ; 
and,  consequently,  have  a  tendency  to  generate  acid 
iti  the  stomach. 

Corn-bread  is  only  a  suitable  diet  for  hearty  persons 
who  have  plenty  of  exercise  in  a  free,  pure  atmosphere, 
whereby  the  fat  generating  portion  can  most  readily 
be  expended ;  for  a  large  amount  of  it  must  be  eaten 
in  order  that  a  sufficiency  of  the  muscle-making  por- 
tion may  be  obtained  to  afford  strength  to  labor. 

Here  the  question  arises,  Why  is  it  that  corn-bread 
is  eaten  to  the  greatest  extent  in  oar  Southern 
States,  and  during  the  warm  summer  season,  with 
comparative  impunity?  Tlie  reply  is,  that  nature  has 
made  ample  provision  in  the  animal  eoon^^yny  for  the 
relief  of  the  system  under  such  circumstances  ;  and 
thus  we  have  tlie  skin  performing  an  important  func- 
tion, that  of  secreting  perspiration,  much  of  which 
passes  off  in  the  form  of  vapor.  For  it  is  a  well- 
known  law  in  the  science  of  cliemistry  that  water,  in 
assuming  the  form  of  vapor,  absorbs  much  heat  from 
the  body.  The  operation  is  identical  with  that  of  cool- 
ing water  in  a  porous  jug.  A  portion  of  the  water 
contained  in  it  percolates  the  porous  material  of  which 
the  jug  is  made,  and  is  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun  ;  but  that  portion,  before  leaving  the  jug,  absorbs 
an  additional  amount  of  heat  from  the  remaining  wa- 
ter, and  thus  deprives  it  of  the  warmth  that  constitu- 
ted it  in  equilibrio  with  the  heated  atmosphere.  By 
this  means  the  water  remaining  in  the  jug  is  rendered 
much  cooler  than  tlie  atmosphere.  And  it  is  in  a  simi- 
lar way  that  the  body  is  relieved  of  its  excessive  heat. 


242 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


We  would  here  direct  attention  to  a  fact  in  relation 
to  a  person  who  is  perspiring  freely.  The  skin,  if 
tested  with  a  thermometer,  or  even  with  the  hand  of 
a  person  not  perspiring  so  freely,  will  be  found  to  be 
much  cooler  than  many  of  the  surrounding  bodies. 
The  skin  thus  cooled  condenses  much  of  the  secreted 
fluid,  and  perspiration  will  be  noticed  to  flow  over 
the  surface.  Thus  it  is  that  the  internal  parts  of  the 
animal  body,  if  in  a  healthy  condition,  are  found  to 
maintain  the  same  degree  of  heat  under  all  the  varia- 
tions of  temperature  in  different  climates,  and  after 
eating  of  various  kinds  of  food.  Wlien  the  food  con- 
tains much  of  the  carboniferous  substances  and  is 
not  consumed  in  respiration,  it  generates  in  the  sys* 
tem  fat,  bile,  or  sugar,  each  of  which  tends  to  an  ab- 
normal condition  of  the  sj'stem,  more  or  less  serious, 
fat  being  the  least  dangerous.  Bile  is  the  excitant  of 
fever  in  various  degrees  of  virulence,  the  more  mode- 
rate forms  of  which  are  curable.  Sugar,  when  gene- 
rated in  the  system,  produces  excessive  secretion  from 
the  kidneys,  and,  as  we  have  said,  constitutes  the  dis- 
ease known  as  diabetes^  which  is  commonly  considered 
to  be  incurable,  but  is  providentially  seldom  induced. 

These  remarks  apply  equally  to  all  kinds  of  fari- 
naceous food,  and  are  of  importance  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  starch  such  food  contains.  They  are 
also  applicable  to  oleaginous  food — to  fat  and  butter — • 
and  to  molasses  and  sugar,  all  of  Avhich  are  subject 
to  the  same  transformation  as  starch,  more  especially 
if  quietude  is  indulged  in.  Motion,  or  exorciffein  the 
open  air,  by  causing  an  increase  of  perspiration,  is 
the  only  reliable  means  of  relieving  the  system  when 


BUCKWHEAT  AND  ITS  VAEIETIES. 


243 


it  becomes  overpowered  or  burdened  by  the  excess 
of  Tinsnitable  diet,  or  by  tlie  heat  of  a  tropical  climate 
or  a  warm,  close  room.  If  persons  thus  situated  would 
only  submit  themselves  to  a  limited  diet  of  wheat  bread, 
fruit,  a  small  quantity  of  lean  meat,  and  to  water  for 
a  drink,  a  tolerable  condition  of  health  might  be  re- 
gained, providing  the  mind  were  tranquil,  and  a  sys- 
tematic regulation  were  adhered  to  in  taking  food  and 
rest.  These  hygienic  observances  should  be  especially 
enforced  in  all  cases  where  children  are  confined  in 
the  nursery-rooms  of  our  modern  houses  that  are 
heated  by  hot  air  and  lighted  with  gas ;  the  only  ex- 
ception being,  that  the  growing  child  requires  more 
food  than  an  adult,  and  plenty  of  excise  of  both 
body  and  lungs. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BUCKWHEAT  AND  ITS  VARIETIES. 

Buckwheat,  caUed  in  Germany  leech-icJieat,  introduced  into  Europe 
in  tlie  sixteenth  century — Has  no  affinity  with  the  cerealia — Is 
used  very  extensively  as  a  bread  grain — When  green  is  excenent 
fodder  for  milch  cows — The  grain  is  good  for  domes»tic  animals — 
Affords  more  muscle  than  corn — Is  hard  to  digest — In  Dantzic  it 
is  largely  distilled  into  spirits — The  several  varieties  of  buck- 
wheat and  analogous  grains. 

BUCKWHEAT,  {Polygonum  fagopijritm^ — or,  as 
it  is  called  in  Germany,  from  the  resemblance 
of  the  seed  to  that  of  the  beechnut,  heecJi-wheat^ — is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  be- 


244 


CFKEALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


giniiiiag  of  tlie  sixteeiitli  century,  and  is  supposed  to 
liave  been  bronglit  thither  from  the  north-western 
regions  of  Cliina,  whence  it  was  distributed  by  the 
Saracens.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  the  wliole  of  Middle 
and  Nortliern  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Northern  Asia. 
In  Northern  India  and  Ceylon  it  is  confined  to  narrow 
limits,  and  is  there  of  very  recent  introduction,  com- 
paratively speaking. 

Buckwheat  has  no  afiinity  w^ith  the  cerealia  ;  it  be- 
longs entirely  to  a  different  family  of  plants;  but  Ave 
notice  it  in  this  place  because  it  is  one  of  the  bread 
grains  nsed  by  man  as  food,  and  in  the  United  States 
to  a  very  considerable  extent.  In  England  it  is  not 
so  used,  but  grown  as  fodder  for  cattle.  When  nsed 
as  green  fodder  and  gi^vento  cows,  it  is  said  to  increase 
to  a  great  extent  the  excellence  and  quantity  of  milk. 
Much  value  attaches  to  it  in  consequence  of  its  bearing 
great  drought,  and  remaining  green  when  all  the  other 
grasses  in  the  meadows  are  dried  up.  It  is  also  prized 
for  its  nutritive  qualities  when  given  in  the  grain  to 
poultry  ;  and  thus  it  is  grown  in  England  in  secluded 
places  for  the  feeding  of  pheasants  and  their  preser- 
vation. The  grain,  wdien  coarsely  ground  and  mixed 
with  oats,  likewise  constitutes  excellent  food  for  horses ; 
and,  when  used  alone,  for  the  fattening  of  hogs,  which 
proves  that  it  contains  a  large  quantity  of  starch. 
It  ferments  most  readily — much  more  so  than  Indian 
corn,  as  it  contains  more  gluten  or  fibrin — and  it  con- 
sequently affords  more  strength  or  muscle-making 
material  than  the  latter ;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  digest, 
and  it  is  therefore  only  fit  food  for  laboring  people. 
The  bread  made  from  buckwheat  flour,  like  that 


BUCKWHEAT  AND  ITS  VARIETIES. 


245 


made  from  common  maize,  is,  wlien  cold,  heavy  and 
insoluble ;  wliicli  indicates  the  excessive  amount  of 
starch  those  grains  contain  compared  with  wheat. 
In  Dantzic,  large  quantities  of  buckwheat  are  dis- 
tilled into  spirits  of  a  fine  quality,  and  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cordials. 

Several  varieties  of  this  grain  are  used  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world  as  food  for  man ;  but,  as  they 
are  but  little  grown  in  our  country,  we  will  merely 
give  them  a  passing  notice. 

Polygonum  tartariGiim  is  of  the  same  family  as  our 
common  buckwheat,  but  of  a  stronger  growth.  It 
was  introduced  into  Europe  at  a  much  later  period 
than  that  plant,  and  is  there  used  for  enriching  the 
soil  by  plowing  it  under  when  green,  and  leaving  it 
to  decay.  Another  variety,  known  as  Polygonum 
emarginatwn^  is  grown  in  China  and  Nepaul.  It  is 
quite  e(pial  to  the  variety  grown  by  us,  one  bushel  of 
seed  producing  from  forty-eight  to  fifty  bushels  of  grain ; 
and  its  cultivation  is  very  advantageous  to  the  fiirmer, 
as  it  is  often  grown  in  ground  that  has  been  planted  with 
wheat  or  rye  in  the  fall,  but  the  crops  of  which  have 
been  destroyed  in  the  winter  and  spring.  The  farmer 
is  thus  enabled  to  obtain  a  crop  of  buckwheat,  suffi- 
cient to  remunerate  him  for  his  labor  in  preparing  the 
ground  for  an  unproductive  v/heat  or  rye  crop. 

On  the  discovery  of  America^  the  inhabitants  of 
New-Granada,  Peru,  and  Chile  were  found  cultivat- 
ing a  somewhat  similar  grain,  which  they  still  grow, 
and  find  very  productive;  and  it  is  rather  remark- 
able that  this  particular  grain  has  never  been  disse- 
minated to  other  parts  of  the  world.    It  is  the  Quinoa 


246 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


clienopodiiim^  (Will.,)  and  constitutes  the  bread  of  tlie 
inhabitants. 

The  white  quinoa  is  cultivated  in  Europe  for  its 
leaves  (which  are  very  like  spinage)  but  not  for  the 
seed. 

The  native  inhabitants  of  the  East-Indies  cultivate 
as  a  bread  grain  the  Amarantus  frumentaoeiis^  (Roxb.) 
It  yields  quite  equal  to  the  quinoa,  and  is  grown  ex- 
tensively on  the  mountain  slopes  of  Mysore  and  Co- 
imbatore. 

CHAPTER  X. 

MILLET,  SORGHUM,  AND  IMPIIEE. 

Millet  commonly  grown  in  tlie  East-Indies — Was  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans — The  several  varieties — The  Sorghum  sao- 
charatum,  a  native  of  India — Its  introduction  as  a  sugar-produc- 
ing plant  into  the  United  States — Impliee,  or  African  sorghum — ■ 
The  sorgho  flourishes  in  the  various  climates  of  the  Union — Its 
numerous  merits — Its  manufftcture  into  sugar — Its  general  use 
— Thp  stalks  foi-m  nutritious  fodder  for  cattle — Yield  of  sugar 
and  molasses  per  acre — Various  methods  adopted  to  obtain  the 
same — Alcoholic  drinks  manufactured  from  the  sap — Uses  to 
wliicli  the  seeds,  husks,  etc.,  can  be  applied — Mode  of  cultivating 
sorghum — Expenses  attendant  upon  cultivation  and  manufac- 
ture, and  the  profit  per  acre — Means  of  testing  the  presence  of 
acid  in  molasses — How  meat  is  preserved  with  molasses — Im- 
portance of  the  sorghum  plant — Invaluable  uses  of  molasses. 

THE  common  Millet^  {Panicum  miliaceum^)  com- 
monly grown  in  the  East-Indies  and  other 
warm  regions  of  Asia.,  is  very  little  inferior  in  pro- 
ductiveness and  profit  to  rice.    Although  a  very  small 


MILLET,  SOKGIIUM,  AND  IMPHEE. 


247 


grain,  it  yields  most  abundantly,  owing  to  wliicli  cir- 
cumstance the  name  Qnille  (a  thousand)  has  been  de- 
rived from  it.  Tliis  grain  was  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  at  the  time  of  Julius  Cjesak.  Strabo 
states  that  it  throve  excellently  in  Gaul,  and  was  the 
best  protection  against  famine.  The  Sclavonians  are 
said  to  be  very  fond  of  a  dish  made  from  it,  and  call- 
ed by  them  Kasha  prosiia.  It  is  believed  by  some 
writers  that  it  was  this  grain,  and  not  the  Indian 
millet,  (Sorghum  mdgare^)  that  the  Emperor  CiimANO 
introduced  into  China  three  thousand  years  ago. 
Major  Denham,  when  traveling  in  Central  Africa, 
found  a  species  of  millet  to  be  the  grain  most  in  use 
among  the  people  of  all  classes  in  Bornpu,  and  upon 
wdnch  their  animals  also  were  fed.  It  was  produced 
in  great  quantities,  and  with  scarcely  any  trouble. 
The  poorer  people  ate  it  raw,  or  parched  in  the  sun, 
and  were  satisfied  without  any  other  nourishment  for 
several  days  together.  Bruised  and  steeped  in  water, 
it  formed  the  traveling  stock  of  all  pilgrims  and  sol- 
diers. When  cleared  of  the  husks,  pounded,  and  made 
into  a  light  paste,  in  wliicli  a  little  meloheia  (the  ehoo 
ochra  of  Guinea)  and  melted  fat  were  mixed,  it  form- 
ed a  favorite  dish,  and  w\as  called  Tx,a(ldell,^ 

There  are  several  varieties  of  millet,  which  are 
designated  by  their  color  only,  as  they  do  not  vary  in 
quality  or  size  of  seed  ;  some  of  these  are  single-spiked, 
and  others  much  branched.  Europe  claims  one  vari- 
ety known  Vi^Setaria  Germanica  ;  and  another,  Setaria 
Italica^  which  is  generally  grown  to  feed  birds  and 
poultry. 

*^  Denliam  and  Clapperton's  Travels,  p.  316. 


248 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


The  variety  of  millet  that  most  especially  demands 
our  attention  is  tlie  sorghum^  which  is  known  by 
a  diversity  of  names  in  the  different  countries  where 
it  is  grown.  In  India  it  is  called  javaroy ;  in  Egypt 
and  Nubia,  dhoicrra  j  and  in  the  West-India  Colonies, 
Guinea  corn^  the  seed  having  been  conveyed  thither 
from  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  wdiere  it  is  called 
imjyhee. 

The  golden-colored  seed  produced  by  the  Sorghum 
saccharatum  is  much  used,  and  in  a  similar  manner  to 
rice,  for  puddings.  Tlie  plant  is  a  native  of  India, 
and  is  cultivated  largely  in  China  and  Cochin  China. 
It  Avas  introduced  into  the  island  of  Jamaica,  and  re- 
cently into  our  own  country,  as  a  sugar-producing 
plant  for  our  South-Western  States.  The  variety 
known  as  imi?]iee^  or  African  sorghum,  has  been  still 
more  recently  introduced  for  the  same  purpose.  There 
is,  however,  but  a  slight  difference  in  the  two  varie- 
ties, probably  a  mere  climatic  change.  The  imphee 
is  said  to  be  more  uniform  and  vigorous  in  growth 
than  the  other,  and  to  contain  the  purest  saccharine 
matter ;  but  much  of  this,  we  presume,  depends  upon 
soil,  climate,  and  favorable  seasons. 

The  first  reports  on  the  culture  of  sorghum  to  any 
considerable  extent  in  the  United  States  appeared  in 
1856,  the  plant  having  been  introduced  into  the  coun- 
try but  a  few  years  previous.  In  that  year,  Mr.  II. 
S.  Olcoit,  of  the  Mount  Vernon  Farm  School,  State 
of  New-York,  read  a  very  interesting  paper'^'  upon 
the  subject  before  th'j  Farmers'  Club  of  the  American 

Reported  in  the  Transactions  of  tlie  American  Institute,  1856, 
p.  324. 


MILLET,   SOEGHUM,  AND  IMPHEE. 


249 


Institute,  in  whicli  paper  lie  stated  that  the  possibility 
of  raising  the  sorgho  in  this  country,  even  to  the  com- 
plete maturity  of  its  seeds  and  the  extraction  of  sirup 
from  its  juice,  had  been  proved  by  actual  experiment 
in  Massachusetts,  Yermont,  Connecticut,  New-York, 
Pennsylvania,  J^ew-Jersey,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Maryland,  Yirginia,  District  of  Columbia,  N^orth  and 
South-Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Mis- 
souri, and  Kansas,  in  all  of  whicli  States,  a  greater 
or  less  amount  of  seed  had  been  sown."^* 

Tlie  fact  of  the  adaptability  of  the  plant  to  these 
wide  extremes  of  territory  makes  its  .introduction  to 
tlie  list  of  our  economic  plants  a  matter  of  general 
interest ;  and  especially  at  a  period  like  the  present, 
when  there  exists  a  general  fe-ar  with  regard  to  the 
future  productiveness  of  onr  sugar  plantations.  We 
therefore  present  an  exposition  of  its  various  merits, 
the  subject  being  one  that  is  daily  increasing  in  its 
importance. 

As  a  sacchariferous  plant,  its  superiority  to  the 
ordinary  sugar-cane  consists  :  , 

1st.  In  its  adaptability  to  all  varieties  of  latitude 
as  far  north  as  the  forty-fom^th  parallel. 

2d.  In  its  being  propagated  from  its  owm  seed, 
whicli  is  obtained  in  connection  with  the  saccharine 
matter. 

3d.  In  its  ripening  at  a  more  convenient  season  of 
the  year. 

4tli.  In  its  yielding  two  crops  in  a  season. 

*  Tlie  cultivation  of  tins  very  useful  plant  is,  at  this  time,  18G7, 
but  very  limited,  being  undertaken  by  but  a  few  individuals  in 
eacli  of  the  States  named. 


250 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


From  tlie  first  of  these  peculiarities,  the  smallest 
farmer  in  tlie  New-England,  Middle,  or  Western 
States  is  enabled  to  manufacture  his  own  molasses 
and  sugar,  and  is  thereby  relieved  from  the  in- 
creased expense  for  these  necessaries  of  life  which  is 
always  attendant  upon  a  failure  of  the  crop  of  South- 
ern cane ;  while  the  peculiar  luxuriance  of  the  sorgho 
in  warmer  latitudes  makes  it  there  a  formidable  rival 
to  that  plant.  The  great  trouble  and  expense  atten- 
dant upon  procuring  and  saving  the  cuttings  of  the 
cane  are  entirely  obviated  with  the  sorgho ;  and  con- 
sequently, even  thongh  the  actual  yield  of  sugar 
per  acre  is  much  less  from  the  latter  than  the  former, 
it  will  be  more  likely  to  prove  remunerative  to  the 
planter.  The  sorgho  ripens  three  months  before  the 
cane,  being  ready  for  crushing  in  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana throughout  August  and  September.  It  thus  per- 
fects its  seed  in  full  time  to  escape  frost,  and  its  crop 
is,  therefore,  far  less  liable  to  failure  than  that  of  the 
cane. 

The  uses  of  the  sorgho  are  so  various,  every  part 
and  portion  of  the  plant  being  valuable,  as  to  have 
obtained  for  it  from  the  National  Intelligencer  the 
name  of  vegetable  sheep."  A  few  of  these  uses 
■we  will  enumerate: 

1st.  Soiling  Cattle. — It  gives  two  and  even  three 
crops  of  succulent  stalks,  which  are  very  nutritious 
and  grateful  to  stock.  In  July,  the  sorgho  cane  will 
have  attained  a  growth  of  five  or  six  feet,  and,  if  then 
cut  down  for  fodder,  rattoons  (young  shoots)  will 
spring  up  from  the  stands  or  stubble,  and  yield  a 
bountiful  harvest  in  the  coming  September  and  Octo- 


MILLET,  SORGHUM,  AND  IMPHEE. 


251 


her.  In  Georgia,  Mr.  Redmond  has  obtained  tliree^ 
crops  of  fodder ;  and  in  South-Carolina,  Governor 
Hammond  has  obtained  sugar  and  seed  fully  ripe  from 
the  second  crop,  that  is,  after  he  had  obtained  one 
crop  of  fodder. 

2d.  Yield  of  Sugar. — M.  Arequin,  of  Louisiana, 
calculates  its  product  of  good  crystallized  sugar  at 
1000  pounds  to  the  acre ;  while  M.  Yilmorin,  of 
France,  pots  it  at  2386  pounds. 

Ecicii  llioiisand  pounds  of  sugar  will  drip  fifty-five 
galJonsoi'  mohisses;  but,  if  the  object  of  cultivation 
be  simply  to  obtain  sirup,  then  we  may  count  upon  a 
product  of  four  hundred  gallons  per  acre  under 
favorable  circumstances.  Colonel  Peters,  of  Georgia, 
obtained  four  hundred  and  sixty-eight  gallons,  and  this, 
too,  with  very  incomplete  apparatus.  From  all  parts 
of  the  Union,  reports  have  been  received  of  the  suc- 
cessful production  of  sirup  and  sugar  from  the  sorgho 
sap.  It  has  been  obtained  by  various  methods.  One 
person  pounded  his  stalks  with  a  rolling-pin,  next  boil- 
ed them,  and  then  evaporated  the  excess,  water.  Ano- 
ther crushed  them  with  an  ordinary  grocer's  sugar- 
mill,  after  which  he  twisted  them  and  rinsed  out  the 
sap,  from  which  pure  sirup  was  obtained  by  boiling  it 
in  a  sauce-pan.  Still  another  cut  the  stalks  into 
small  pieces,  which  he  boiled  in  water  without  any 
preparatory  crushing  or  bruising ;  while  a  fourth 
squeezed  out  the  sap,  by  means  of  a  pair  of  horizon- 
tal rollers,  geared  to  an  equal  speed  and  driven  by 
a  couple  of  mules.  But  various  as  these  methods  are, 
they  all  establish  the  absolute  presence  of  sirup  in 
the  sorgho  sap,  in  the  difterent  States  from  whence 


252 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


the  reports  have  come  ;  and  to  obtain  from  it  tlie  largest 
amount  of  sugar  possible,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
apply  tlie  means  adopted  in  the  manufacture  of  cane- 
sugar,  as  previously  pointed  out  in  this  work. 

Governor  Hammond  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  young- 
er sorgho-canes  are  richer  in  saccharine  principle 
than  the  older  ones ;  but  the  experience  of  Professor 
Henze  in  France,  and  that  of  Mr.  Olcott  at  the 
Farm  School,  indicate  that  the  extreme  richness  in 
the  sugar  is  attendant  upon  the  full  maturity  of  the 
seed.  However,  if  the  canes  are  allowed  to  remain 
uncut  for  some  time  after  the  seed  has  turned  red 
and  passed  the  milk  state,  a  smaller  per  cent  of  sugar 
will  be  obtamed. 

The  Zooloo  Caffres  increase  the  sweetness  of  tlie  sap 
by  cutting  oft*  tlie  tops  of  the  plants  just  as  the  seed- 
heads  begin  to  show  themselves.  A  like  practice  was 
successfully  pursued  in  the  United  States  in  the  pre- 
vious experiments  to  make  sugar  from  sweet  corn. 

3d.  Alcoholic  Drinhs. — From  the  sap  of  the  sorgho 
may  also  be  obtained  several  fermented  alcoholic 
drinks,  such  as  brandy,  rum,  pure  alcohol,  and  cider. 
M.  AREQmN,  howevei",  says  that  the  sorgho  cognacs  are 
greatly  inferior  to  the  usual  ones;  but  this  difference, 
Professor  Henze  remarks,  is  distinctly  and  entirely 
due  to  the  imperfect  methods  of  manufacture.  M. 
ViLMORiN  calculates  the  product  of  alcohol  per  acre  at 
180i  gallons. 

4th.  Uses  to  which  the  Seeds ^  Ilushs^  etc.^  can 
he  applied, — The  seeds  make  a  good  meal,  which  has 
been  prepared  into  cakes  that  have  been  pronounced  al- 
most equal  to  those  made  from  buckwheat  The  seeds, 


\ 


MILLET,  SOKGHUM,  AND  IMPHEE.  253 

too>  are  inucli  relished  by  cattle,  hogs,  horses,  and  fowls. 
M.  SiGARD,  a  manufacturer  of  Marseilles,  has  success- 
fullj^  used  the  hulls  of  the  seeds  for  the  production  of  a 
beautiful  carmine  for  dyeing  his  linen  and  cotton 
goods.  The  National  Intelligencer  of  Washington 
City  states  that  the  sap,  if  set  with  oxide  of  tin,  gives 
a  pink  color  to  silken  fabrics.  Also  that,  after  the 
seed  has  been  removed  from  the  tassels,  the  lattermay 
be  made  into  brooms,  and  answer  for  that  purpose 
almost  as  well  as  broom-corn.  The  usual  yield  of 
seed  per  acre  is  about  twenty-five  bushels,  of  thirty- 
six  pounds  each,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  even  more, 
and  in  others  less. 

The  soil  most  suitable  for  growing  sorghum  is  rich 
sandy  loam  or  bottom  land  ;  but  it  will  flourish  very 
well  on  coarse  gravelly  soil,  if  care  is  taken  to  keep 
down  the  weeds,  and,  when  planting  it,  to  allow  plen- 
ty of  room.  The  seed  should  not  be  covered  more 
than  half  an  inch  with  fine  mould,  and  previous  to 
])lanting  should  be  soaked  in  hot  water  for  a  few 
hours.  After  the  plants  have  made  their  appearance 
above  the  ground,  the  soil  should  be  freely  stirred 
witli  the  plow,  so  as  to  keep  it  loose  about  the  roots. 
Mr.  D.  M.  Cook,  of  Mansfield,  Oliio,  states''^  the  ex- 
pense attending  the  cultivation  and  manufacture  of 
sugar  per  acre  in  that  State,  in  1862,  to  have  been  as 
follows  : 

The  expense  of  cultivating  and  manufacturing  an 
acre  of  sorghum  is  about  tliirty-seven  dollars.    It  may 
run  possibly  to  forty-five  or  fifty  dollars.    My  cane 
yielded  about  two  hundred  and  tvrenty-five  gallons  to 
*  Agricultural  Report  from  Patent  Ofdce  for  1862,  pp.  311-814 


254 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


tlie  acre,  and  of  this  about  seven  pounds  to  tlie  gal- 
lon were  crystallizable  sugar,  giving  one  tliousand 
five  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  to  the  acre." 

Mr.  J.  H.  Smith,  of  Quincj,  Illinois,  made  one 
thousand  five  hundred  pounds  to  tlie  acre  from  the 
crop  of  1861,  and  had,  besides,  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen gallons  of  good  sirup.  Brown  sugar  then  re- 
tailed throughout  the  West  at  twelve  and  a  half 
cents,  and  the  wholesale  price  was  ten  cents  per  pound. 
Molasses  sold  readily  at  forty  cents,  wholesale.  The 
profits  may  therefore  be  stated  to  have  been  as  under  : 

1500  pounds  of  sugar,  at  10  cents  per  pound,  $150  00 

115  gaUons  of  molasses,  at  40  cents  per  gaUon,  ....       46  00 

$196  00  , 

Deduct  expenses,   50  00 

Balance,  net  profit,  $146  00 

Molasses  from  sorghum  is  now  being  used,  when 
perfectly  free  from  acid,  for  the  curing  of  meat.  The 
presence  of  acid  is  easily  ascei'tained  by  immersing 
into  the  molasses  a  slip  of  litmus  paper  thus  prepar- 
ed :  Take  half  an  ounce  of  litmus,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased from  an  apothecary,  put  it  into  an  earthen  ves- 
sel, pour  over  it  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  then 
let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  two  hours.  Dip  into 
this  mixture  slips  of  white  wrapping-paper,  which  it 
will  turn  to  a  purple  color,  and  then  dry  them,  and 
afterward  inclose  them  in  a  well-dried,  wide-mouthed 
bottle,  which  must  be  kept  from  the  light.  When  a 
strip  of  this  litmus  paper  is  used  as  a  test,  the  presence 
of  acid  will  turn  it  red  or  reddish  in  degree  to  the 
amount  of  acid  contained  in  the  molasses,  or  in  any 
other  substances  to  which  it  may  be  applied. 


MILLET,  SORGHUM,  AND  IMPHEE.  255 


To  prepare  the  meat  for  curing  with  sorghum  mo- 
lasses, it  must  be  first  covered  with  a  strong  brine  for 
twenty -four  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  tlie  brine  must 
be  taken  off,  and  subjected  to  the  following  treat- 
ment :  To  twen-ty  gallons  of  brine  add  four  ounces 
of  saltpetre  (nitrate  of  potash)  and  four  gallons  of 
molasses,  and  then  boil  the  whole  till  a  bright  amber- 
colored  solution  is  formed.  When  cool,  carefully  re- 
move the  scum,  and  then  again  pour  the  liquid  over 
the  meat,  and  let  it  soak  it  for  twenty  days.  Hams 
thus  prepared,  and  then  smoked,  are  of  superior  flavor. 

We  have  been  led  into  these  extended  remarks  upon 
the  qualities  and  uses  of  the  sorghum  plant,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  apparent  usefulness  to  man  as  food  in 
so  many  different  forms,  and  of  the  limited  knowledge 
the  people  possess  of  it,  owing  to  its  very  recent  intro- 
duction into  our  country  ;  and  the  statements  are  espe- 
cially intended  to  invite  the  attention  of  our  Northern 
and  Western  farmers  to  the  cultivation  of  what  may 
prove  to  them  a  most  valuable  crop,  and  may  aftbrd 
to  all  sugar  and  molasses  at  a  cheap  rate.  Molasses 
is  much  used  by  every  person  who  can  procure  it,  and 
is  given  with  great  advantage  to  children  to  eat  w^ith 
their  bread,  as  it  obviates  in  them  the  desire  to  par- 
take excessively  of  fats  and  gravies,  which  are  most 
indigestible  articles  of  diet,  and,  if  composed  of  pork, 
generate  diseases  of  the  skin  and  eyes.  When  eaten 
by  children  in  robust  health,  molasses  neither  be- 
comes acid  in  the  stomach  nor  possesses  any  tendency 
to  impair  the  secretions.  It  is  only  inadmissible  food 
for  very  delicate  persons,  in  whom  it  is  liable  to  pro- 
duce acidity. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


PEAS,   BEANS,   AND  LENTILS. 


Peas  and  beans  most  nutritious,  but  difficult  to  digest — For  horses 
and  oxen  they  exceed  all  other  food  in  nutriment — The  garden  pea 
cultivated  at  a  very  remote  period — The  several  varieties  of  peas 
— The  chick-pea  an  object  of  devotion — Where  it  is  cultivated — 
Much  used  by  the  Spaniards — Was  the  parched  pulse  of  the  He- 
brews— Eastern  trade  in  parched  peas — Garden  and  field  peas — 
The  bean  known  at  an  earlier  period  than  the  pea — Kyanetes,  the 
god  of  beans,  honored  by  the  Athenians — The  bean  considered 
an  impure  fruit  by  the  Egyptians — Was  in  ancient  times  the  sym- 
bol of  death — Cultivated  in  China  2822  years  before  the  Christian 
era — Is  made  into  flour  and  bread  by  the  Abyssinians — Is  largely 
cultivated  in  Barbary — Varieties  of  beans — The  kidney-bean — 
The  lentil  grown  in  France  and  Italy — Made  into  soup  in 
Catholic  countries  as  a  limited  diet  for  fast-days — Is  the  most  nu- 
tritious of  the  leguminous  seeds — Eaten  by  the  Hindoos  when 
engaged  in  laborious  work. 


HE  products  of  leguminous  plants  form  a  very 


JL  nutritious  food  for  man,  most  invaluable  to  ro- 
bust persons,  but  ditlicult  of  digestion  by  those  wlio 
possess  enfeebled  digestive  organs.  Peas  and  beans, 
when  matured,  contain  more  nitrogenous  matter  than 
the  cerealia.  This  matter  is,  however,  in  a  peculiar 
form,  and  somewhat  resembles  that  found  in  the  curd 
of  milk,  known  as  casein  or  cheese,  which,  we  have  al- 
ready indicated,  is  very  indigestible,  and  not  so  solu- 
ble as  fibrin  and  albumen  obtained  from  lean  meat. 


PEAS,  BEANS,  AND  LENTILS. 


257 


But  for  the  horse  and  the  ox  these  products  are  very 
beneficial,  as  they  exceed  all  other  food  consumed  by 
those  animals  in  the  power  of  producing  strength. 

Green  peas  {Pisum  sativum)  and  green  beans  (  Vicia 
faba)  do  not  contain  as  much  of  the  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter as  the  matured  seed,  and  they  consequently  form 
a  most  excellent  diet  for  the  summer  season,  as  they 
are  easily  digested.  When  they  approach  maturity, 
people  with  weak  digestive  powers  must  be  cautious 
in  eating  them,  or  serious  consequences  may  be  the 
result. 

The  common  garden  j^^?^  was  cultivated  in  India  at 
a  very  remote  period,  and  it  was  also  grown  by  the 
Greeks  and  Eomans.  At  the  present  day  ij:  is  found 
growing  wild  about  the  Crimea,  and  along  the  coast 
of  the  Black  Sea ;  and  its  varieties  are  cultivated  as 
far  north  as  Hamnierfest  and  Lapland.  The  Pisicm 
arvence^  Linn.,  has  been  extensively  distributed,  and  is 
now  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  in  many  parts  of  India. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  of  peas  ;  as  the  Egyp- 
tian pea,  {Pisum  jomardi^)  the  Abyssinian  pea,  {P. 
Abyssinicum^)  the  sea  pea,  (P.  mauriscum^)  the  Cape 
Horn  pea,  {P.  Americanum^  and  the  European,  or 
yellow  flowering  pea,  (P.  ochrus^  growing  wild  on 
the  coasts  of  France  and  England  ;  but  none  of  these 
are  eaten  where  other  food  can  be  obtained. 

What  is  known  in  the  East  as  the  chick-pea,  {Cicev 
arieiinum^  Linn.,)  is  of  great  importance  to  the  people 
of  that  region.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
and  Egyptians  in  ancient  times,  and  was  made  an  ob- 
ject of  devotion.  The  common  people  in  Greece 
cultiyate  it  for  food  at  the  present  day,  and  not 


258 


CEREALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


only  eat  it  roasted  during  the  winter  months,  but  nse 
it  like  coffee.  It  is  also  grown  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,  as 
far  south  as" Abyssinia,  and  on  the  heights  of  Lebanon  ; 
as  well  as  in  Spain,  where  it  is  used  both  as  a  dyeing 
ingredient  and  an  article  of  food,  and  is  known  by 
the  name  of  garvanzos.  The  seed  of  this  pea  differs 
from  that  of  the  common  pea  in  not  becoming  soft 
when  boiled  ;  consequently  the  Spaniards  do  not  cook 
it  as  w^e  do  ordinary  peas,  but  strew  it  about  other 
dishes  for  ornament,  except  in  the  case  of  a  dish  called 
oZZc^— composed  of  bacon,  cabbage,  pumpkin,  and  gar- 
vanzos — which  forms  a  favorite  dinner  diet  among 
those  people.  The  chick-pea  has  been  much  esteem- 
ed among  many  nations  from  the  earliest  periods.  It 
is  most  commonly  parched,  and  thus  prepared  has 
continued  to  the  present  day  to  be  an  article  of  great 
consumption. 

According  to  Bellokius,^  this  pea  was  the  parched 
pulse  which  formed  the  common  provision  of  the 
Hebrews  when  they  took  the  field  ;  and  Cassia- 
Nusf  supposes  it  to  have  been  the  torrified  seed  men- 
tioned by  Plautus  and  Akistophanes.  frictum 
cicer  seems  to  have  constituted  a  part  of  the  usual 
food  of  the  lower  orders  at  Rome.  In  Grand  Cairo 
and  Damascus  quite  an  extensive  trade  is  done  in 
the  sale  of  parched  chick-peas,  wdiich  are  purchased 
as  a  light  article  of  food  by  travelers  when  they  are 
about  to  cross  the  desert.  These  parched  peas  are 
highly  recommended  as  being  not  only  a  nutritious 
diet,  but  of  great  advantage  in  promoting  a  free  se- 
cretion of  saliva,  on  account  of  their  being  very  diffi- 
*  Calm.  Diet.  Bibb.  lib.  ii.  cap.  53.  f  Cassian.  CoUat. 


PEAS,  BEANS,  AND  LENTILS. 


259 


cult  to  masticate,  and  thus  to  a  certain  degree  they 
prevent  thirst.  They  are  called  by  the  Turks  who 
sell  them  leUebhy, 

The  peas  grown  in  the  United  States  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  those  of  the  garden  and  that  of  the 
field.  Of  the  former  there  are  innumerable  varieties 
as  well  as  various  qualities.  Some  mature  in  a  much 
shorter  time  than  others,  and  some  vary  much  in  fla- 
vor ;  but  all  are  prized  for  arriving  at  maturity  in  so 
short  a  period  of  time  that  a  number  of  crops  can  be 
obtained  in  a  season,  and  the  table  can  be  furnished 
with  green  peas  from  spring  to  autumn.  The  field  pea, 
of  which  we  have  only  one  variety,  is  in  constant 
requisition  for  provision  for  the  crews  of  ships,  on 
board  of  which  an  immense  quantity  is  consumed. 

The  hean  has  been  known  from  a  remoter  age  than 
the  pea,  or,  at  least,  it  has  been  noticed  by  historians 
at  an  earlier  period.  Like  the  cereajia,  it  had  its 
divinity  claiming  devotional  service.  Kyanetes,  the 
god  of  beans,  stood  upon  the  sacred  road  to  Eleusis, 
and  to  him  was  dedicated  the  feast  of  beans,  Kya- 
nepsia^  which  the  Athenians  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Apollo.  The  bean  was  held  sacred  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  it  was  much  cultivated  by  the  Jews. 
By  the  Egyptians  it  was  considered  an  impure  fruit, 
and  was  not  allowed  even  to  be  touched.  Pythagoras 
forbade  his  scholars  to  eat  beans.  In  ancient  times  the 
black  speck  on  the  white  flower  of  the  plant  was 
viewed  as  a  mark  of  death;  and  the  bean  was  in 
consequence  considered  to  be  the  symbol  of  death. 
Though  known  to  the  Egyptians,  the  bean  is  not  found 
in  their  catacombs,  a  circumstance  which  is  probably 


260 


CEKEALS  AND  LEGUMES. 


owing  to  tlie  abhorrence  tliey  had  of  it.  The  Greeks 
called  the  JS^elmnbium  speciosiun  the  Egyptian 
bean,"  but  this  is  a  well  known  water-plant,  having 
no  relation  whatever  to  the  bean  family. 

The  Chinese  cultivated  the  bean  2822  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  It  was  considered  by  them  to  have 
been  one  of  the  five  different  kinds  of  seeds  that  were 
introduced  by  the  Emperor  Chinang,  whose  memory 
they  continue  to  worship,  esteeming  him  as  their 
great  benefactor. 

The  Abyssinians  make  a  flour  of  beans,  and  bake 
bread  of  it.  This  bread  is  not  very  palatable  to  per- 
sons unaccustomed  to  it,  but  it  is  probably  the  most 
nutritious  for  healthy,  active  persons  that  is  made. 
Along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  beans  are  used 
as  an  esculent.  Mr.  Shaw  states  that  beans  are 
largely  cultivated  in  Barbary,  where  they  are  eaten 
stewed  with  (jil  and  garlic,  and  form  the  principal 
food  of  every  class. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  beans,  too  numerous 
to  be  treated  of  in  detail  in  this  work  ;  but  as  all 
are  generally  known  among  us  as  a  common  food, 
the  omission  of  any  specific  description  of  them  is  a 
matter  of  but  slight  importance. 

A  small  black  bean,  called  by  some  the  turtle-soup 
bean,  is  much  prized  by  the  Mexicans  and  through- 
out Central  America,  where  it  is  extensively  cultivat- 
ed, and,  w^hen  the  seeds  are  ripe,  eaten..  This  bean  is 
called  by  the  people  of  that  ^^itiion  fricollis^  and  with 
tliQm  it  is  said  to  form  a  part  of  almost  every  meal. 
In  the  manner  in  which  they  prepare  it  travelers 
speak  of  it  as  being  a  most  palatable  food. 


PEAS,  BEANS,  AND  LENTILS. 


261 


In  Bornon,  a  kingdom  of  Central  Africa,  four 
kinds  of  beans,  peculiar  to  the  country  and  known  by 
the  general  name  of  gafooly^  are  cultivated  and  eaten 
by  the  slaves  and  poorer  people.  A  paste  compounded 
from  beans  and  fish  was  the  only  food  that  could  be 
found  there  by  Major  Denha^i  and  his  companions  in 
the  towns  near  the  river.*^ 

The  kidney-hean  {Phaseolics)  is  most  commonly 
grown  in  our  gardens.  There  are  two  varieties  and 
many  sub-varieties,  all  natives  of  foreign  countries. 
The  dwarf  kidney-bean,  {P,  vulgaris^  a  native  of 
India  and  commonly  called  the  French  bean,  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1597.  The  P.  multi- 
floris  was  introduced  into  the  same  country  in  1633. 
The  latter  is  our  running  bean,  and,  when  growing, 
requires  poles  for  support.  Of  this  variety,  there  are 
the  red  and  white  flowering ;  but  these  do  not  dilfer 
in  any  other  particular. 

The  lentil  {Ervum  lens^  Linn.)  is  a  leguminous  plant 
grown  by  the  French  and  Italians.  In  most  Catholic 
countries  its  seeds  are  made  into  soup,  w^hich  is  eaten 
as  a  limited  diet  on  fast-days  ;  and  in  addition  they  form 
an  ingredient  in  other  culinary  preparations.  Though 
the  lentil  was  known  at  as  early  a  period  as  the 
bean,  it  has  never  become  so  widely  disseminated. 
Dr.  Playfair  states  that  it  contains  more  nitrogenous 
matter  than  any  of  the  legiiminosm^  and  consequently 
is  more  nutritious,  when  digested,  than  any  other  of 
the  leguminous  seeds.  The  lentil  is  consumed  in  the 
East  in  considerable  quantities  ;  and  a  curious  proof 
of  its  value  as  a  nutritious  diet  is  afforded  by  the  us^ 

*  Denliam  and  Clapper  ton's  Travels,  p.  317. 


2C2 


CEREALS  AND  LEGU^EES. 


made  of  it  among  the  Hindoos,  who  always  have  re- 
course to  it  in  addition  to  their  rice,  when  they  are 
engaged  in  rowing  on  the  Ganges  or  in  other  labori- 
ous work.  Rice,  it  must  be  remembered,  even  when 
eaten  in  large  quantities,  imparts  to  the  system  but 
little  strength. 


TART  VL 

/SCULENTS    AND  |^RU1T 


CHAPTEE  I 


THE  POTATO. 

Properties  of  esculent  vegetables — Tlie  potato  most  nutritious  and 
of  tlie  utmost  value  to  man — Can  not  be  superseded — Found 
growing  wild  in  Chili — Indigenous  to  America,  and  thence  trans- 
ported to  England  in  1586 — Arrives  at  its  greatest  perfection  in 
the  temperate  zones — Quality  improved  by  culture — Peculiar 
effect  of  cultivation  upon  esculents  and  fruits — The  potato  im- 
proved by  change  of  locality — As  a  diet,  exempts  from  disease — 
When  eaten  with  rich  food,  improves  the  digestive  functions^ — 
Its  use  would  avert  excessive  mortality — Too  much  fluid  creates 
a  craving  for  large  quantities  of  food — Value  of  esculents — 
Comparative  amount  of  nutriment  in  common  articles  of  diet. 

ESCULENT  vegetables  contain  a  large  amount 
of  water  and  starch,  and  con:iparatively  a  very 
small  proportion  of  fibrin  or  muscle-making  material. 
Among  these  vegetables  the  potato  takes  the  fore- 
most rank.  It  is  not  only  a  reliable  food  for  man, 
sufficient  to  sustain  life  exclusive  of  other  diet,  but  it 
is  also  of  the  utmost  value  when  eaten  with  animal 
fiesh,  as  it  forms  with  the  latter  a  congenial  combina- 
tion, from  which  a  sustenance  is  elaborated  that  is 
invigorating  to  all  parts  of  the  animal  system — to  the 
respiratory  organs  as  well  as  to  the  muscular.  And 
yet  the  most  strenuous  efforts  have  been  made  by 
practical  men  to  introduce  other  vegetables  in  its 
place,  and  to  attribute  to  them  the  good  (pialities  it 


266 


ESCULENTS  AND  FKUITS. 


possesses ;  but  they  have  been  eventually  compelled 
to  acknowledge  their  ntter  inability  to  supersede  it. 

The  potato  {Solanum  tuberosum)  is  found  growing 
wild  in  Chili  and  the  islands  to  the  south,  about  45^ 
south  latitude,  but  never  more  than  a  few  miles  in- 
land. This  species,  however,  is  widely  different  from 
the  cultivated  potato,  the  tubers  being  suudl  and  the 
flowers  a  pure  white,  and  without  the  bluish  tinge 
common  in  those  of  the  latter.  The  younger  Hooker 
has  discovered  in  that  region  five  varieties  of  th«  wild 
potato.  Other  varieties  are  f  )und  in  the  East  and 
West-Indies,  and  are  known  as  the  Solamim  commer- 
sonii^  PoiR.,  the  S.  maglia^  Dun.,  and  the  8.  immite^ 
Dun.  In  Mexico,  too,  grow  the  Solanum  demissum^ 
LiND.,  the/S'.  Gardiophyllmn,  Lind.,  and  the  S.  verruco- 
sum^  ScHLECHT  ;  the  latter  of  which  is  said  to  pro- 
duce small  but  palatable  tubers,  that  are  eaten  by  the 
foreign  population  of  the  country.  All  these  varie- 
ties, however,  unlike  those  of  Chili,  grow  inland  as 
w^ell  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast,  and  on  both 
elevated  and  low  ground. 

The  history  of  the  early  discovery  of  the  potato  is 
somewhat  obscure,  but  eminent  naturalists  generally 
admit  that  it  is  an  indigenous  plant  of  America,  and 
was  transported  from  the  Carolinas  to  England  in  the 
year  1586  ;  after  which  it  was  disseminated  over  Eu- 
rope. Comparatively  little  notice  was  taken  of  it  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  tlie  present  century,  wdien  it 
excited  a  great  amount  of  interest  from  the  extraordi- 
nary dependence  that  it  was  found  could  be  placed 
upon  it  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  potato  is  now  cultivated  as  far  north  as  Bergen 


THE  POTATO. 


267 


in  Norway  ;  but  it  only  arrives  at  its  greatest  perfec* 
tion  in  the  temperate  zones,  where  it  has  been  known, 
under  extraordinary  cultivation,  to  produce  over  seven 
hundred  bushels  to  the  acre/*"  That  proper  culture 
has  improved  its  quality  is  evident  from  the  estima- 
tion in  which  it  was  held  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  Mortimer's  "  Gardener's  Ka- 
lender"for  1708,  it  is  directed  that  the  potato  be 
planted  in  February  (that  is,  in  England)  and  as  in- 
dicative that  its  character  had  not  then  become  gene- 
rally known,  it  is  remarked  that  "  the  root  is  very 
near  tlie  nature  of  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  although 
not  so  good  and  wholesome,  but  it  may  prove  good 
for  swine." 

At  the  present  day  it  has  arrived  at  the  height  of 
its  perfection.  It  has,  however,  changed  so  much 
from  its  original  nature,  and  the  equilibrium  of  its 
organic  relation  has  become  so  disturbed,  that  it  now 
exhibits  a  tendency  to  decay  ;  and  scientific  natural- 
ists have,  in  consequence  thereof,  intimated  the  neces- 
sity of  introducing  the  cultivation  of  the  original  wild 
potato,  which  it  may  require  many  years  to  bring  to 
any  thing  like  a  state  of  perfection.  Still,  in  the  pre- 
sent state  of  art  and  scientific  skill,  the  desired  object 
may  be  accomplished  after  a  few  years'  cultivation, 
notwithstanding  that  the  attempts  which  have  already 
been  made  to  cultivate  the  wild  plant  have  been  attend- 
ed with  but  partial  success.  This  is  much  to  be  re- 
gretted ;  but  in  addition  to  experience,  time  is  required 
to  accomplish  success,   and  this  is  especially  weil 

*  London  Horticultural  Society's  Transactions  for  Marcli  lOtli, 
1833.   Paper  read  hy  Andrew  Kniglit,  President  of  tlie  Society. 


268 


ESCULENTS  AND  FEUITS. 


known  to  practical  cultivators  of  vegetables  and  fruits, 
Yi^lio  have  discovered  that  a  continued  series  of  like 
treatment  often  produces  peculiar  and  favorable  results. 

The  peach  grown  in  China  has  also  changed,  having 
now  the  pit  on  one  side  of  the  fruit,  which  it  is  not  to 
be  supposed  was  its  original  formation,  but  is  ratlier 
the  result  of  centuries  of  cultivation.  From  the  eco- 
nomical method  there  adopted  of  training  the  trees 
against  the  wall,  land  being  so  very  valuable,  the 
pulp,  in  the  course  of  time,  has  gradually  increased  in 
development  toward  the  light ;  for  all  plants  have  a 
natural  tendency  to  grow  toward  the  sun,  their  forms 
being  equalized  only  when  all  parts  are  fully  exposed 
to  its  influence. 

Change  of  locality  aftects  the  potato  very  much 
and  improves  its  quality.  The  very  prolific  and  com- 
mon red  potatoes,  which,  with  us,  are  so  rancid  as  to 
be  only  grown  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  stock,  are 
sent  to  the  Bermuda  Islands  as  seed,  and  from  this 
seed  most  delicious  j^otatoes  for  the  table  are  produced 
and  returned  to  our  markets. 

This  and  other  most  cogent  reasons  should  induce 
perseverance  in  the  cultivation  of  the  original  potato 
for  a  succession  of  seasons,  in  order  to  determine  if 
it  is  possible  to  renew  a  health}^  variety  from  the  wild 
tuber. 

Though  it  is  universally  admitted  that  the  potato 
is  a  most  valuable  adjuvant  in  the  food  of  man,  it  mast 
be  conceded  that  it  is  not  appreciated  to  its  full  value. 
Its  congenial  qualities  are  indicated  by  the  robust 
health  which  is  enjoyed  by  persons  who  make  it  tluiir 
principal  diet,  and  who  are  usually  exempt  f;f'om  the 


THE  POTATO, 


269 


various  ailments  that  affect  those  who  make  the  cere- 
alia  and  animal  flesh  their  chief  food.  The  latter  are 
subject  to  decaying  of  the  teeth,  mostly  caused  by 
defective  digestion  and  the  consequent  acidity  of  the 
stomach;  while  their  secretions  are  morbidly  affected, 
and  produce  ichorous  humors  wliich  create  excessive 
itching  in  local  parts,  as  well  as  roughness,  blotches, 
and  pimples  on  the  skin.  These  derangements  are 
but  seldom  if  ever  found  upon  persons  who  make  the 
potato  their  leading  diet. 

These  morbid  secretions  result  from  the  impair- 
ment of  the  digestive  functions  induced  by  the  stom- 
ach being  overloaded  with  highly  nutritious  food  ; 
and  this  overloading  is  almost  unavoidable  when  wheat- 
bread  and  meat  are  made  tlie  chief  diet,  because  the 
proper  or  required  amount  of  nutriment  is  contained 
in  so  small  a  quantity  of  such  food  that  the  appetiie 
is  not  satisfied  with  it,  and  an  excess  is  generally 
taken,  and  produces  heaviness  and  an  inclination  to 
sleep,  which  are  direct  indications  of  a  superabun- 
dance of  nutriment.  In  such  an  event  rest  is  essen- 
tial in  orAev  that,  by  a  concentration  of  the  vital 
forces,  the  stomach  may  be  relieved  of  its  burden. 
Even  then  the  food  will  not  be  properly  digested  ; 
but  the  relief  obtained  will  render  the  person  tempo- 
rarily unconscious  of  the  injury  his  system  has  sus- 
tained, for  the  eiTects  of  his  over-indulgence  will  not 
be  immediately  felt,  but  will  be  obscured,  and,  w^hen 
he  does  become  sensible  to  them,  will  most  likely  be 
attributed  to  any  thing  but  the  true  cause.  And  so 
biliousness  will  be  attributed  to  a  bilious  temperament, 
and  violent  headaches  to  a  constitutional  nervous 


210 


ESCULENTS  AND  FEUITS. 


derangement  or  to  over-exertion  ;  while  no  attempt 
will  be  made  to  account  for  flatulency  and  eructations, 
which  will  be  only  noticed  for  their  inconvenience ;  but 
they  are  the  direct  indications  of  an  overburdened 
stomach,  which  has  yielded  to  the  fermentative  pro- 
cess and  eliminated  gas  that  never  results  from  the  di- 
gestive functions  when  properly  operating. 

This  action  illustrates  statements  made  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter :  that  gluten  or  fibrin,  of  which  wheat 
contains  the  greatest  amount,  is  the  active  ingredient 
in  fermentation,  and  that  the  final  result  of  fermen- 
tation is  acetic  acid ;  however,  when  fermentation  is 
produced  in  the  stomach,  it  is  not  always  that  acid,  but 
sometimes  other  acids  tliat  are  engendered.  When  the 
fermentative  process  takes  place  in  the  stomach,  the 
digestive  powers  become  so  enfeebled  tliat  they  are 
unable  to  act  upon  fats,  such  as  butter,  rich  sauces, 
gravies,  fat  meats,  etc.,  and  leave  them  to  become 
exceedingly  acrid  from  chemical  changes.  The  fer- 
mentation being  active,  regurgitation  ensues  and  ex- 
coriates the  throat,  and  this  is  soon  followed  by  sick 
headaches  and  sucli  other  ailments  as  neuralgia,  rheu- 
matism, etc.,  which  are  often  attended  with  depression 
of  spirits  and  foreboding  of  evil.  These  are  the  mala- 
dies which  follow  the  eating  of  excessive  quantities 
of  very  nutritious  food,  or,  more  properly  speaking, 
of  food  containing  the  greatest  amount  of  nitrogenous 
substances — albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein — which  can 
only  be  expended  in  severe  exercise ;  and  such  exer- 
cise is  only  effective  when  the  system  has  become  ac- 
customed to  it. 

Muscle,  which  is  the  flesh  of  man  or  animals,  when 


THE  POTATO. 


271 


fully  developed,  affords  force  or  strength.  One  thou- 
sand pounds  of  such  flesh  contains  one  hundred  and 
sixty  parts  of  nitrogen,  while  the  same  number  of 
pounds  of  wheat  contains  but  ninety-eight,  of  pota- 
toes but  forty-five,  and  of  corn  but  about  twenty-five. 
Rice  contains  but  little  if  any  nitrogen.  From  this 
comparison  we  learn  that  people  who  lead  a  seden- 
tary life  and  do  not  require  to  expend  muscular  force 
in  labor,  and  who,  at  the  same  time,  wish  to  satisfy 
the  appetite  with  quantity,  without  impairing  the  di- 
gestive powers,  will  find  that  potatoes  will  not  only 
meet  their  requirement,  but  will  allow  of  their  eating 
with  them  a  moderate  quantity  of  lean  meat,  or  fresh 
butter,  to  which  maybe  added  a  limited  portion  of 
wdieat  loaf-bread  that  has  been  carefully  fermented, 
and  that,  Avlien  soaked  in  water,  will  not  change,  or 
will  only  produce  a  slight  change,  in  the  color  of  lit- 
mus paper.  Persons  who  freely  secrete  perspirable 
matter  of  an  oleaginous  character,  and  who  actually 
secrete  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  in  combina- 
tion with  other  secretions,  can  indulge  with  impunity 
in  a  tolerable  amount  of  meat,  and  in  reality  require 
such  a  diet. 

Persons  of  enfeebled  digestive  powers  will  not  only 
be  able  to  digest  potatoes,  but  they  will  find  them  to 
be  a  preventive  to  the  forming  of  those  acrid  com- 
pounds that  so  frequently  cause  distress  when  fats  are 
taken  without  a  suitable  quantity  of  farinaceous  food 
to  diff*use  them.  Maize  or  corn-bread  usually  disa- 
grees with  this  class  of  persons,  as  maize  contains  oil, 
and  is  therefore  an  unsuitable  diet  for  them.  Of  all 
the  cerealia,  rice  most  resists  the  fermentative  pro- 


272 


ESCULENTS  AND  FRUITS. 


cess  :  consequently,  when  it  is  well  boiled,  and  is 
eaten  with  tender  lean  meat,  broiled  quickly  and  left 
quite  rare,  it  forms  the  most  suitable  article  of  food 
for  .persons  having  enfeebled  digestive  powers.  It 
will  not  only  suffice  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of 
quantity,  but  it  will  diffuse  the  meat  if  the  latter  is  well 
masticated,  and  will  thus  prevent  it  from  becoming 
oppressive.  The  food  will  then  be  properly  digested, 
and  will  eventually  afford  nutriment  sufficient  to  in- 
vigorate the  enfeebled  organs,  so  that  they  will  be 
enabled  to  perform  their  wonted  functions  without 
difficulty. 

Dr.  Harkins,  in  liis  "  Medical  Statistics,"  states, 
upon  the  authority  of  M,  Yillerme,  that  of  tlie  child- 
ren born  in  the  department  of  Indre,  a  locality  in 
France  possessing  a  very  fine  dry  climate  and  a  tem- 
perate people,  one  fourth  die  witliin  the  first  year, 
one  half  of  those  left  between  their  fifteenth  and  twen- 
tieth years,  and  three  fourths  of  tlie  remainder  before 
they  reach  their  fiftieth  year.  A  very  eminent  phy- 
siologist, M.  DuTRocHET,  a  resident  in  that  depart- 
ment, attributes  tlie  cause  of  this  extraordinary  mor- 
tality to  the  food,  which  consists  chiefly  of  bread,  of 
which  ^  he  calculates  every  adult  person  eats  two 
pounds  a  day  ;  and  he  is  of  opinion  that,  if  a  portion 
of  potatoes  and  a  small  quantity  of  animal  food  were 
substituted  for  it,  the  people  would  both  li^e  longer 
and  enjoy  better  health.  But  to  the  introduction  of 
this  desirable  change  two  almost  insurmountable  dif- 
ficulties have  been  found  to  stand  in  the  way — meat 
can  not  be  had,  and  a  strong  prejudice  exists  agninst 
the  eating  of  potatoes.    With  us,  however,  no  such 


THE  POTATO. 


273 


obstacles  to  the  adoption  of  a  healthy  diet  need  be 
anticipated,  nor  any  other  short  of  a  failure  of  the 
potato  crop  ;  and  the  fear  of  this  has  led  to. a  special 
inquiry  into  the  subject,  which  has  resulted  in  the 
tlireatened  calamity  being  averted  by  the  partial  suc- 
cess that  has  attended  tlie  introduction  of  new  varie- 
ties of  fair  quality,  which  afford  a  liberal  yield,  and, 
wlien  carefully  gathered  and  protected,  remain  exempt 
from  disccise.  At  the  present  time  there  is  a  sufficient 
supply  of  tliis  esculent  in  the  country  to  meet  even  one 
half  of  the  whole  amount  of  food  required  for  the  in- 
habitants ;  and  if  potatoes  were  used  to  that  extent, 
it  would  be  most  advantageous  to  tlie  people,  not 
only  in  a  pecuniary  sense,  but  in  the  improvement 
of  health,  and  particularly  the  health  of  those  who 
reside  in  densely  populated  cities. 

The  stomachs  of  children  are  much  impaired  by 
the  common  practice  of  giving  them  large  quantities 
of  fluid  diet,  beyond  which  it  induces  a  craving  for 
a  large  amount  of  food,  which  continues  through  life. 
Such  a  condition  is,  in  fact,  that  of  most  of  our  peo- 
ple, and  it  is  entirely  attributable  to  the  cause  here, 
stated.  Under  these  circumstances,  as  quantity  and 
not  quality  is  required  to  satisfy  the  appetite,  pota- 
toes and  rice,  or  esculents  which  do  not  contain  a 
large  amount  of  nutriment,  should  be  eaten  in  prefer- 
ence to  much  wheat-bread  and  meat,  or  other  analo- 
gous diet.  The  very  pernicious  habit  of  giving  large 
quantities  of  milk,  milk-porridge,  or  other  fluid  diet 
to  children  should,  most  especially,  be  carefully  avoid- 
ed. One  fourth  the  quantity  usually  given  would 
be  ample  sustenance  for  a  child,  and  would  be  far 


274 


ESCULENTS  AND  FEUITS. 


more  conducive  to  its  health.  The  benefit  would  be 
apparent  in  after  life,  as  then  the  craving  to  which 
w^e  here  allude  would  not  exist,  and  there  would  be 
no  desire  to  overburden  the  stomach  with  food,  which, 
when  taken,  is  frequently  of  too  nutritious  a  quality, 
and  consequently  most  injurious. 

The  value  of  esculents  as  a  diet  can  scarcely  be 
over-estimated ;  for,  when  used  to  dilute  the  very  nu- 
tritious food  that  is  indulged  in  by  all  v/ho  can  ob- 
tain it,  they  are  very  beneficial  to  health.  As  they 
vary  but  little  in  their  nutritive  qualities,  the  reader 
would  derive  little  advantage  from  being  presented 
with  a  description  of  the  very  many  varieties  that  are 
now  cultivated,  or  with  the  history  of  those  that  have 
been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  ages. 

The  comparative  value  of  the  common  articles  of 
diet,  in  so  far  as  relates  to  the  most  important  con- 
stituent of  food,  namely,  nitrogenous  matter,  or  pro- 
tein, (the  properties  of  which  we  have  already  very 
fully  described,)  is  very  plainly  illustrated  by  Dr. 
Lyon  Playfair  in  the  following  table,  which  he 
presented  in  a  course  of  lectures  delivered  before  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Great  Britain  : 

100  pounds  of  turnips  contain  one  pound  of  ])rotem. 

50  "  "  potatoes 

50  "  "  carrots  "        "       "      "  " 

25  "  miU^ 

9  "  oat-meal  "        "       "  " 

7i  "  wheat-flour 

4  "  lean  flenli 

3|-  "  "  peas  or  beans  "  "  " 

From  this  table  it  will  be  perceived  that  potatoes 
and  carrots  contain  double  the  protein  or  nitrogenous 


PLANTS  OF  WHICH  WE  EAT  THE  LEAVES,  ETC.  2l5 


niritter  found  in  turnips,  but  only  half  of  tliat  cor 
tained  in  milk,  rather  more  than  one  seventh  of  that 
found  in  wlieat-flour,  and  a  little  less  than  one  twelfth 
of  that  contained  in  lean  meat. 


CIIAPTEE  II. 

PLANTS   OF  WHICH  WE  EAT  THE  LEAVES,  ETCa 

•Value  of  esculents  as  food— Have  been  used  for  diet  in  all  ages- 
Asparagus  cultivated  to  perfection  by  the  Romans — Cabbage 
most  digestible  in  a  raw  state — Kolilsalat  and  sap.erkraut — The 
lettuce  much  prized  by  the  Persians — It  is  a  wholesome  diet 
when  eaten  with  dressing — Vinegar  is  a  promoter  of  digestion — 
Oil  arrests  fermentation  in  the  digestive  organs— By  whom  su- 
gar should  not  be  used  in  dressing — Remarks  apply  equally  to 
the  dressing  of  all  salads — Celery  a  most  valuable  salad-plant— 
In  its  wild  state  is  rank  and  unpalatable,  but  when  cultivated  is 
sweet  and  agreeable — Is  a  great  promoter  of  digestion — Parsley 
of  the  same  family  as  celery. 

THOSE  plants  of  which  we  eat  the  leaves,  flow- 
ers, and  young  shoots — such  as  cabbage,  spin- 
ach, asparagus,  etc. — contain,  with  water  and  starch, 
only  a  small  amount  of  protein  in  the  form  of  albu- 
men ;  but  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it  to  render  them 
an  efficient  diet  for  man.  Yet  they  are  exceedingly  be- 
neficial to  health  when  eaten  with  the  more  nutritious 
kinds  of  food,  and  particularly  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer seasons,  when,  indeed,  they  ought  to  be  used  al- 
most to  the  exclusion  of  highly  nutritious  articles  of 
diet.    It  is  evident  that  their  good  qualities  in  this 


276 


ESCULENTS  AND  FRUITS. 


respect  have  been  long  apparent,  for  they  liave  for 
ages  been  universally  eaten  by  man,  notwithstanding 
that  they  are  so  insipid  to  the  taste  as  to  require 
dressings  to  make  them  palatable. 

Cabbage  {Brassica  oleracea)  was  in  cultivation  by 
the  Romans  in  tlie  days  of  Columella,  who  states 
that  it  was  a  favorite  edible  with  freemen,  and  in  suf- 
ficient plenty  to  be  an  article  of  food  for  slaves.  The 
ancient  Germans  also  cultivated  cabbage  from  very 
remote  times,  and  were  indebted  to  the  Romans  for 
its  introduction.  Spinach^  {Spinacia  oleracea^)  ac- 
cording to  Beckman,  was  used  as  an  edible  substance 
in  Europe  in  the  year  1351,  (having  been  previously 
used  as  a  medicine.)  Asparagus  {Asparagus  offici- 
nalis) is  one  of  the  most  ancient  known  of  culinary 
vegetables,  and  has  ever  been  esteemed  as  a  great 
luxury.  It  was  held  in  much  favor  by  the  Greeks, 
and  is  described  by  Dioscokides."^  The  Romans  w^ere 
noted  for  their  skill  in  its  culture,  w^hicli  appears  to 
have  far  exceeded  modern  cultivation.  Pliny  states 
that  three  shoots  of  aspar;igus  grown  in  Ravenna 
weighed  a  pound.  This  far  surpasses  any  thing  we 
liave  ever  seen  ;  still,  the  plant  being  exceeding  pro- 
ductive in  a  rich  sandy  soil,  if  only  one  or  two  eyes 
W'Cre  permitted  to  grow  from  a  large  stool,  as  it  is 
termed  by  gardeners,  it  would  be  possible  to  produce 
such  monster  shoots,  instead  of  obtaining,  as  is  now 
usually  the  case,  some  twenty  or  thirty  small  ones  from 
the  same  stool  or  large  body  of  roots, 

A  large- number  of  esculent  plants  are  oaten  in  their 
raw  state.  Some  of  tliese,  when  cooked,  are  thereby 
*  Lib.  ii.  cliap.  151. 


PLANTS  OF  WHICH  WE  EAT  THE  LEAVES,  ETC.  211^ 


rendered  miicli  more  indigestible  than  when  raw ; 
as,  for  instance,  cabbage^  which,  when  dressed  as  a 
salad — in  which  form  it  is  called  Jwhlsalat^  the  cab- 
bage salad  of  the  Germans — is  easy  of  digestion,  and 
can  be  eaten  by  those  who  can  not  partake  of  boiled 
cabbage  without  injury.  Smierkratct^  the  sour  cab- 
bage of  the  Germans — a  preparation  of  raw  cabbage 
made  by  a  process  of  fermentation,  in  which  it  gene- 
rates the  vinegar  that  pickles  it — is  also  a  most  whole- 
some diet,  and  was  formerly  in  great  demand  by  per- 
sons taking  long  voyages  at  sea,  owing  to  its  being 
considered  a  preventive  of  that  deplorable  scourge 
known  as  the  scurvy.  It  is,  however,  in  consequence 
of  its  bulk,  not  now  in  much  requisition  for  that  pur- 
pose, having  given  place  to  lemon-juice,  which  is 
equally  efficacious  in  preventing  and  arresting  that 
disease,  and  possesses  the  advantage  of  requiring  much 
less  room  on  board  a  ship,  where  economy  of  space  is 
ever  an  important  consideration. 

The  lettuce  is  one  of  the  most  universally  cultivat- 
ed esculents  now  known,  and  consists  of  two  varieties, 
the  Lactuca  capitata^  or  heading  lettuce,  and  the  Lac- 
tuca  crispa^  or  curled-leav^ed.  These  varieties  were 
cultivated  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  were  known  to 
the  Persians  in  the  time  of  Cambyses,  and  with  the 
latter  form  to  this  day  one  of  their  most  prized  dishes. 
The  common  people  eat  the  plant  raw^  with  olives, 
broad,  and  cheese. 

Lettuce  is  generally  considered  a  most  wholesome 
diet,  as  it  usually  agrees  with  very  delicate  persons  ; 
but  this  may  be  partly  attributed  to  the  dressing,  as  it 
is  generally  eaten  with  a  preparation  made  of  oil  and 


278 


ESCULENTS  AND  FRUITS. 


vinegar.  Yinegar,  if  taken  in  dne  proportion  and  not 
in  excess,  promotes  digestion,  and  assists  the  diges- 
tive organs  when  very  indigestible  articles  of  food 
have  been  eaten,  relieving  those  organs  from  tlie  eifect 
of  an  indiscretion  which  might  prove  most  serious,  if 
it  were  omitted.  Oil  arrests  fermentation,  to  which 
there  is  a  tendency  in  enfeebled  digestive  powers,  and 
by  thus  preventing  the  process,  allows  sufficient  time 
for  the  accomplishment  of  proper  digestion.  The  oil 
itself,  however,  is  not  readily  digested  ;  but  it  is  inof- 
ensive  to  the  stomach  when  pure  and  not  rancid.  Su- 
gar is  often  used  as  a  part  of  the  dressing,  but  should 
not  be  indulged  in  by  persons  with  weak  digestive 
powers,  as  it  is  a  promoter  of  fermentation,  which,  we 
repeat,  terminates  in  the  formation  of  acid  in  the 
stomach,  to  the  interruption  of  healthy  digestion. 

These  remarks  apply  equally  to  the  dressing  and 
eating  of  salads,  made  from  the  various  kinds  of  escu- 
lent plants,  with  the  exception  of  Qelery,  which,  when 
well  blanclied,  may  be  eaten  raw  and  without  dress- 
ing. In  this  state  it  is  a  promoter  of  digestion,  which 
quality  it  possesses  in  an  eminent  degree. 

Celery  {Apiitm  graveolens)  is  one  of  our  most  valu- 
able salad  plants,  and  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the 
effects  of  cultivation.  In  its  wild  state,  it  is  rank, 
coarse,  and  unpalatable ;  but  when  propei'ly  cultivat- 
ed and  blanched,  it  is  sweet,  and  of  a  very  agreea- 
ble flavor  to  most  persons  accustomed  to  use  it.  The 
Italians  do  not  blanch  the  plant,  but  use  the  leaves 
and  seeds  as  ingredients  in  their  soup,  and  consider 
them  great  promoters  of  digestion.  Parsley  {Aj)ium 
fetroselimiirh)  is  of  the  same  family  as  celery,  cUid  is 


FRUITS,  THEIR  PROPERTIES  AND  QUALITIES.  279 

supposed  to  be  very  wholesome.  The  celery  plant  is 
the  production  of  a  saline  soil.  It  is  found  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Greece,  Turkey,  and 
in  some  of  the  salt  marshes  of  this  country  ;  it  is  the 
favorite  food  of  the  canvas-back  duck,  and  is  supposed 
to  conduce  to  the  fine  flavor  of  that  much  admired 
game.  It  is  of  ancient  notoriety,  having  been  ad- 
verted to  by  Theophrastus,  the  Grecian  philosopher. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FRUITS,  THEIR  PROPERTIES  AND  QUALITIES. 

Fruit  desirable  as  an  adjuvant  in  diet — Promotes  digestion,  and 
lessons  tlie  demand  for  hearty  food — All  fruits  are  not  deficient 
in  nutriment — Their  medicinal  properties — They  contain  orga- 
nic acids — Table  of  gases  found  in  these  acids — They  are  ai:)pro- 
priated  to  the  uses  of  the  body — The  fruits  in  which  specific 
acids  are  found. 

^ITH  respect  to  frnits,  we  shall  now  confine  our 
remarks  to  their  peculiar  qualities.  In  a 
previous  chapter,  in  treating  of  the  cellular  substances, 
we  compared  with  their  properties  those  of  fruit,  and 
there  entertained  the  opinion  that  salads  serve  the 
purpose  of  lessening  the  demand  for  more  hearty 
food,  and  are  most  desirable  as  an  adjuvant  in  diet  in 
early  spring,  and  until  the  summer  fruits  ripen,  and  are 
placed  in  the  dietary  catalogue.  The  remarks  are 
equally  applicable  to  both  products  as  necessary  food 
for  man,  for  they  are  alike  very  conducive  to  health 
at  all  seasons,  but  more  especially  in  our  climate  in 


280 


ESCULENl^S  AND  FKUITS. 


the  snmmer  and  autumnal  months.  As  the  cold  sea- 
son approaches,  more  hearty  food  is  necessary  to  sus- 
tain the  demand  of  the  body  for  increase  of  animal 
lieat,  and  vegetables  and  fruits  are  then  only  required 
in  less  quantity,  and  as  promoters  of  digestion. 

As  we  have  thus  represented  fruits  as  useful  in  les- 
sening the  demand  for  more  nutritious  diet,  and  as 
contributors  of  a  medicinal  property  or  promoters  of 
digestion,  the  impression  might  be  entertained  tliat 
all  fruits  are  deficient  in  nutriment.  Such,  however, 
is  not  tlie  case.  Some  fruits  are  quite  as  nutritious  as 
the  potato,  if  not  more  so,  especially  tropical  fruits. 
But  it  is  the  other  most  valuable  properties  which  they 
possess  that  are  most  requisite  in  this  climate,  which 
induces  a  demand  for  a  change  of  diet  in  accordance 
with  the  change  of  season,  in  order  to  maintain  a 
tolerable  standard  of  good  health.  These  properties 
are  the  acids,  the  volatile  oils,  and  the  alkalies,  which, 
though  they  do  not  contribute  to  the  increase  of  the 
growth  of  nmscle,  are  essential  to  sustaining  animal 
life.  The  acids  are  termed  '^organic,"  and  abound 
not  only  in  fruits,  but  in  most  vegetables  that  are 
eaten  by  man,  while  in  a  succulent  form.  To  those 
vegetables  that  are  deficient  in  them,  he  almost  in- 
variably adds,  or  has  a  desire  to  add,  vinegar. 

The  acids  obtained  from  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
the  malic,  tartaric,  citric,  and  oxalic.  The  following 
table  exhibits  their  compounds  of  the  elemental  gases: 


Apples  contain  Malic  Acid, 

Grapes        "  Tartaric  " 

Lemons       "  Citric  " 

Rhubarb     "  OxaHc  " 


Carbon.    Hydrogen.  Oxygen, 


8 

4 

'  8 

8 

4 

10 

12 

5 

11 

2 

0 

3 

THE  APPLE  AND  THE  PEAR. 


281 


These  acids  are  generally  supposed  to  be  appropri- 
ated to  the  uses  of  the  body,  otlier  than  for  the  evolu- 
tion of  heat,  which  results  from  the  partaking  of 
starch,  oil,  and  sugar. 

Malic  acid  is  found  in  more  or  less  quantities  in 
the  pomaceous.  family  of  plants,  to  which  belong  the 
apple,  pear,  quince,  medlar,  and  others. 

The  stone-fruits,  or  those  that  have  hardened  endo- 
carps,  contain  tartaric  and  malic  acids  in  their  pulp, 
and  prussic  or  hydrocyanic  acid  in  their  seed  proper. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

THE  APPLE  AND  THE  PEAR. 

The  apple  tlie  most  valuable  fruit — The  prophet  Joel  refers  to  it — 
It  is  also  mentioned  by  Shakespeare — Manufacture  of  cider  fa- 
vored bv  Charles  I. — The  consequences  of  partaking  of  impure 
wines — Wild  apples  and  pears,  where  found — The  pear  has  a 
much  wider  range  than  the  apple — The  cultivation  of  apples  and 
pears  most  improved  by  tlie  Romans — The  varieties  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers — Their  number  at  the  present  day — A  knowledge 
of  good  fruit  not  encouraged  in  the  United  States — Unripe  fruit 
pernicious  even  when  cooked. 

THE  APPLE  (Pyrus  mains)  must  be  placed  at 
the  head  of  all  the  fruits  on  account  of  its 
many  good  qualities  ;  for  it  is  not  only  ve  y  refresh- 
ing and  palatable,  but  it  possesses  in  its  numerous 
varieties  the  most  diverse  and  delicious  flavors.  Pro- 
bably it  is  not  so  exquisite  in  taste  as  some  of  our 
very  tender  fruits,  but  still  in  this  respect  it  will  bear 


282 


ESCULENTS  AND  FRUITS. 


a  fair  comparison  with  tliem ;  while  it  certainly  far 
surpasses  all  in  affording  us  its  advantages  through- 
out the  year,  and  in  great  extremes  of  climate.  It  is 
said  to  grow  wherever  oaks  thrive."^ 

The  history  of  the  apple  dates  from  very  early  ages. 
"We  find  it  spoken  of  by  the  prophet  Joel,  who  re- 
marks that  the  vine  is  dried  up,  and  the  fig-tree 
languishetli ;  the  pomegranate-tree,  the  palm-tree 
also,  and  the  apple,  even  all  the  trees  of  the  field,  are 
withered. "f  Shakespeare  repeatedly  mentions  it, 
and  in  a  sentence  in  the  second  part  of  "  Henry 
the  Fourth  "  indicates  that  its  cultivation  was  pur- 
sued in  his  day.  In  that  play  he  makes  Shallow  say, 
"  Nay,  you  shall  see  mine  orchard,  where  in  an  arbor 
we  will  eat  a  last  year's  pippin  of  my  own  grafting, 
with  a  dish  of  caraways,  and  so  forth." 

At  the  present  time  the  many  varieties  represent, 
more  or  less,  the  flavor  of  almost  every  delicious  fruit; 
and,  in  the  shape  of  cider,  affl)rd  us  a  most  refj'cshing 
beverage,  that,  when  properly  manufactured,  quite 
equals  some  varieties  of  wine,  and  excels  others,  in 
its  wholesome  qualities.  The  planting  of  orchards 
for  the  manufacture  of  cider  Avas  favored  by  Charles 
1.  of  England,  so  that  its  use  might  supersede  that  of 
wine,  which  was  imported  from  France.  But  wine 
had  then  obtained  such  a  position  among  the  oj)ulent 
that  with  them  it  was  f  jund  impossible  to  supplant 
it  with  a  beverage  that  conkl  be  so  easily  procured 
by  the  common  people.  And  this  is  the  principal 
reason  that  cider  is  not  now  in  more  general  use  in 
the  United  States,  instead  of  the  miserable  and  un- 


*  Von  Busli's  Travels,  p.  40. 


t  Joel  1  :  12. 


THE  APPLE  AND  THE  PEAR. 


283 


pleasant  flavored  wines  that  are  either  imported  or 
prepared  at  home,  and  are  drank  at  our  tables,  though 
they  are  quite  disagreeable  to  the  palate  without  the 
addition  of  sugar  and  ice.  These  additions,  liowever, 
have  not  the  least  tendency  to  modify  the  well-known 
consequences  of  an  indulgence  in  such  fluids — gout, 
rheumatism,  or  neuralgia  in  all  its  various  phases. 

The  wild  apple  and  pear  are  found  in  all  temperate 
climates.  We  have  a  native  apple  in  the  United 
States,  called  the  Pyrus  coronaria^  or  American 
crab-apple.  In  the  forests  of  Europe,  and  in  the 
Caucasus,  are  found  the  P.  mollis^  or  common  apple, 
and  thei^.  communis^  or  common  pear,  being  indige- 
nous to  those  regions.  In  Balkair,  in  Hindostan,  the 
prar-tree  grows  in  large  groves,  while  the  apple-tree 
is  more  solitary  in  its  habit.  Both  these  wild  species 
produce  small,  ascerb,  bitter  fruit. 

The  j^mr  {Pyrus  communis^  LiisrN.)  is  said  to  have 
a  much  wider  distribution  than  the  apple.  The  gar- 
dens of  the  Phoenicians  and  of  Thasos  were  cele- 
brated in  ancient  times  on  account  of  the  excellent 
pears  they  contained.  The  ancient  Romans  were 
noted  for  having  most  improved  the  cultivation  of 
both  pears  and  apples,  and  some  of  the  varieties  they 
grew  are  known  at  the  present  day. 

The  progress  of  cultivation  in  the  production  of  va- 
rious kinds  of  pears  and  apples  has  been  very  conside- 
rable, l3ut  a  great  number  of  years  have  been  required 
to  produce  them.  Theophrastus  enumerates  three 
kinds  of  pears  and  two  of  apples,  and  Cato  six  kinds 
of  pears  and  seven  of  apples  ;  while  Pliny  knew  of 
forty-one  kinds  of  pears  and  thirty-six  of  aj)23les,  and 


284 


ESCULENTS  AND  FKUITS. 


Palladius  of  fifty-six  kinds  of  pears  and  tliirtj-seven 
of  apples.  At  the  present  day  the  varieties  of  both 
may  be  numbered  by  hundreds  ;  but  many  of  them 
are  neither  very  distinct  in  character  nor  inviting  to 
the  palate.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  names  of 
only  a  very  limited  number  of  the  finest  varieties  are 
known  to  either  the  rich  or  the  poor  in  this  country, 
where  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  various  species  is 
solely  confined  to  cultivators,  which  may  be  attributed 
to  our  horticultural  and  pomological  societies  being 
unsustained  in  their  eff'orts  to  inculcate  an  acquain- 
tance with  the  choice  fruits,  and  to  the  neglect  of  the 
people  to  avail  themselves  of  their  labors.  It  is  through 
such  sources  alone  that  the  people  can  become  ac- 
quainted with  them,  and  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the 
essentials  requisite  to  produce  fruit  of  the  best  varie- 
ties, and  in  perfection.  As  it  is,  the  markets  are 
generally  supplied  with  inferior  flavored  qualities, 
which  are  obtained  from  the  producers  at  very  mode- 
rate prices,  and  which,  when  not  fully  ripe,  possess 
to  the  latter  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  preserve 
a  fine  appearance  for  a  greater  length  of  time  than 
the  finer  qualities  would. 

The  consequence  of  all  this  is,  that  gross  impositions 
are  constantly  being  practiced,  and  thattlie  people  have 
palmed  upon  them  apples  and  pears  which  should  be 
condemned  as  pernicious,  because  of  the  effects  that 
are  produced  by  eating  unripe  fruit,  or  fruit  which 
has  ripened  during  warm  weather  in  the  barrels  or 
baskets  of  some  huckster.  And  this  is  the  more  to 
be  regretted  when  we  consider  that  there  is  nothing 
more  grateful  and  salutary  to  the  sick,  even  in  an  at- 


THE  APPLE  AND  THE  PEAR. 


285 


tack  of  irritation  of  tlie  stomach  and  bowels,  than 
good  ripe  apples  or  pears  taken  direct  from  the  trees, 
pared  and  cored,  and  eaten  in  moderate  quantity. 
But  the  granulated  portion  about  the  core  of  the  pear, 
of  which  some  varieties  have  more  than  others,  should 
be  carefully  avoided  by  persons  having  weak  diges- 
tive powers  or  an  irritable  condition  of  the  stomach 
or  bowels.  And,  above  all,,  fruit  should  not  be  eaten 
that  has  been  kept  in  a  confined  room  where  there  is 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  or  that,  during  the  warm 
summer  months,  has  been  exposed  to  an  impure  at- 
mosphere for  over  forty-eight  liours,  as  after  such  ex- 
posure it  can  not  be  eaten  with  impunity  by  either 
adults  or  children.  The  eating  of  all  unripe  fruit 
should  be  carefully  avoided,  it  matters  not  wdiether 
it  is  raw  or  cooked  ;  for,  as  we  have  heretofore  ex- 
plained, cooking  only  very  slightly  modifies  the  acids 
that  are  contained  in  it;  and  these  acids  are  not 
only  very  different  from  those  found  in  ripe  fruit, 
but  are  decidedly  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs. 
These  remarks  apply  equally  to  all  kinds  of  fi  ,iit. 


CHAPTER  V. 


STONE-FRUITS,  THE  GRAPE,  ETC 


Stone-fruits  are  divided  into  two  families — The  seed,  bark,  and 
leaves  contain  hydrocyanic  acid — The  peach  a  vs^holesome  fruit — 
The  cherry  and  the  plum  not  so  wholesome — Want  of  disposi- 
tion in  many  to  cultivate  fruit-trees — The  noble-hearted  traveler 
Burchell — The  misfortunes  of  Sickler,  the  German  horticultu- 
rist— The  peach  cultivated  in  the  earliest  ages — It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  books  of  Confucius — The  original  home  of  the 
cherry — The  grape  one  of  the  first  fruits  cultivated  by  man — > 
Is  indigenous  to  several  countries — Varieties  produced  by  cross- 
ing— American  grapes — The  properties  of  the  smaller  fruits  iden- 
tical with  those  described.  * 


iHE  stone-fruits,  or  Ainygdalece^  are  divided  into 


I  two  families  of  plants.  The  peach,  nectarine, 
and  almond  form  one  ;  and  the  apricot,  plum,  and 
cherry  the  other.  They  all  exude  gum,  and  their 
seed,  bark,  and  leaves  contain  hydrocyanic  acid. 
This  very  poisonous  acid,  however,  has  not  any  ten- 
dency to  impair  the  good  qualities  of  the  fruit. 

•  The  peach  {Amygdalus  Persicd)  is  a  most  whole- 
some fruit  to  all  persons  who  do  not  possess  a  very 
direct  tendency  to  acidity  in  the  stomach,  and  even  to 
those  who  do  the  effect  it  produces  is  only  felt  for  a 
very  limited  time,  and  is  then  usually  followed  by  the 
beneficial  result  of  exciting  the  bowels  to  action — for 
acidity  of  the  stomach  is  generally  attended  with  con- 
Btipation  of  the  bowels. 


STONE-FllUITS,  THE  GRAPE,  ETC. 


287 


The  clierry  {Prunus  cerasus^  Linn.)  and  tlie  plum 
(P.  domestica)  are  mucli  more  decided  in  tlieir  action 
on  the  boweis,  aud  can  not  be  indulged  in  by  many 
persons.  This  most  probably  results  from  the  com- 
mon practice  of  swallowing  the  indigestible  skins,  as 
well  as  from  the  laxative  effects  of  the  tartaric  acid 
contained  in  the  pulp. 

All  these  fruits,  so  delicious  and  grateful  to  the  sight 
and  taste  of  civilized  man,  have  been  carried  by  him 
in  his  migration,  and  have  been  carefully  cultivated 
wherever  tire  climate  would  permit.  All  persons, 
however,  do  not  possess  the  disposition  to  provide 
even  for  themselves,  much  less  for  posterity.  Even 
amono*  us  are  to  be  found  those  who  think  it  a  lone: 
time  for  fruit-trees  to  grow,  and,  as  they  therefore 
conclude  that  they  (5an  not  be  much  benefited  by 
their  produce,  consecpiently  do  not  think  it  worth 
while  to  plant  them.  But  there  are  always  some 
among  men  whose  minds  rise  above  this  petty  selfish- 
ness, even  when  they  can  not  foreshadow^  a  prospect 
of  self-benefit.  Of  such  was  the  noble-hearted  travel- 
er BuKCHELL,  wlio,  when  journeying  in  the  interior 
of  Southern  Africa,  presented  to  the  chief  of  the 
Bachafins  tribe  a  bag  of  peach-stones  that  had  cost 
him  much  care,  and  most  probably  had  much  incon- 
venienced him  in  his  long  journey.  ''Nor  did  I 
fail,"  remarks  the  benevolent  man,  "  to  impress  on  his 
mind  a  just  idea  of  their  value  and  nature,  by  telling 
him  that  they  would  produce  trees  which  would  con- 
tinue every  year  to  yield,  without  further  trouble, 
abundance  of  large  fruit  of  a  more  agreeable  flavor 
than  any  which  grew  in  the  country  of  the  Bacha- 


288 


ESCULENTS  AND  FKUITS. 


fins."  Says  Humboldt  :  "  Why  have  not  every  where 
the  names  of  those  been  preserved  who,  in  place  of 
ravaging  the  earth,  have  enriclied  it  with  phints  nse- 
ful  to  the  human  race  ?"  For  ages  after  tlieir  day 
must  the  admiration  of  all  liberal-minded  men  be  felt 
and  expressed  for  such  public  benefactors,  of  whom 
there  are  many  names  on  record. 

The  Transactions  of  the  London  Horticultural  So 
ciety  contain  a  most  interesting  memoir  of  Sickler, 
a  distinguished  naturalist  of  Germaity,  who  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees  in 
the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose three  nurseries.  The  first  of  these,  containing 
eight  thousand  grafted  trees,  was,  in  1806,  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  French,  after  the  battle  of  Jena, 
when  Net's  corps  bivouacked  in  it.  And  again, 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  in  1814,  the  second  nursery 
planted  by  the  same  eminent  man  was  destroyed  by 
the  Cossacks.  Yet,  in  1817,  he  had  planted  and 
reared  a  third  with  his  own  hand,  persevering  in  his 
good  w^ork  for  the  benefit  of  after  generations,  who 
should  reverence  his  name  with  thankfulness  when 
they  taste  of  the  fruits  of  his  perseverance  and  labor. 

The  history  of  the  cultivation  of  the  peach  goes 
back  to  the  furtliest  antiquity.  This  fruit  is  believed 
to  be  the  2ao  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Confucius, 
who  flourished  in  the  sixtli  century  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  it  is  said  to  be  still  grown  to  the  great- 
est perfection  in  China  and  Japan. 

The  species  of  phcrns  includes  the  common  cherry 
{P.  cerasus^  Linn.)  and  the  black  cherry,  {P,  avium^ 
Linn.)    The  former  of  tliese  was  found  growing  wdld 


STONE- FKUITS,  THE  GRAPE,  ETC. 


289 


in  the  mountain  forests  of  Southern  Caucasus,  and 
was  brouglit  to  Italy  from  Cerasunt,  in  Pontus,  after 
the  conquest  of  Mitueidates,  seventy-four  years  before 
the  Christian  era. 

The  grape  (  Yitis  mnifera^  Linn.)  must  be  consi- 
dered one  of  the  first  fruits  cultivated  by  man.  It  is 
indigenous  to  several  countries,  and,  like  the  cherry, 
'is  said  to  have  an  origin  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Caucasian  mountain  chain,  where  it  is  found  growing 
wild,  bearing  an  inferior-flavored  fruit  of  small  size. 
But  the  constant  change  of  circumstances  has,  in  the 
course  of  ages  and  under -skillful  culture,  resulted  in 
so  clianging  the  nature  of  the  plant  that  it  now  pro- 
duces the  most  delicious  fi-uit  we  are  enabled  to  en- 
joy. There  are  many  varieties  of  grapes  that  have 
been  produced  by  intermingling,  or  crossing,  as  it  is 
termed  by  horticulturists ;  and  the  intermingling 
of  other  grapes  with  those  that  are  indigenous  to  this 
country  has  had  the  effect  of  increasing  tlie  number 
of  varieties  cultivated  by  us. 

From  the  Northern  Fox  grape  (F".  laljrusca^  Linn.) 
has  been  produced  the  well-known  Isabella  grape^ 
which  possesses  the  most  valuable  qualities  of  bear- 
ing a  hue-flavored  fruit,  and  of  growing  in  the  most 
confined  situations,  even  in  city  yards,  and  of  pro- 
ducing, under  such  unfavorable  circumstances,  an 
abundant  crop.  It  may  be  truly  called  the  poor 
man's  friend ;  for  it  is  often  found  trained  up  the  end 
of  some  of  the  most  humble  cottages,  and  loaded  with 
luscious  fruit,  which  supplies  the  occupants  for  weeks 
with  a  wholesome,  delicious  dessert,  that  their  scanty 
incomes  would  not  permit  them  to  purchase. 


290 


ESCULENTS  AND  FRUITS. 


We  have  five  other  varieties  of  native  grapes,  some 
of  them  nuicli  prized  for  their  good  qualities.  The 
Muscatine  or  Southern  Fox  grape  (  F.  vuljnna^  Linn.) 
has  a  fine  musk  flavor,  and  from  it  has  resulted  the 
Scujppernong  grajye^  which  produces  an  excellent  wine 
of  most  peculiar  taste.  The  Catawba  grape^  a  deli- 
cious fruit,  is  also  the  result  of  some  of  the  Southern 
varieties.  It  is  a  fine  table  fruit,  grows  most  vigo- 
rously in  the  Middle  States,  and,  in  Ohio,  is  used  almost 
exclusively  for  making  the  finer  qualities  of  wine. 
The  Winter  grape  (  Y.  cordifolia^  Mich.)  is  very  tart,  but, 
when  preserved  in  sugar,  is  much  prized  for  the  table. 
TlieF.  (Bstivalis^  Mich.,  is  a  small  black  grape,  posses- 
sing a  most  pleasant  flavor  and  ripening  in  October. 
The  other  two  native  varieties  are  the  V.  hipinnata^ 
ToRR.  and  Gray,  found  growing  in  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky, and  the  y.  ^7^<f^^;^5a,WILDD.,  found  on  the  banks 
of  small  streams  in  Ohio  and  Western  Virginia. 

From  these  native  varierties,  grown  in  different 
localities,  and  from  the  grapes  of  foreign  countries, 
new  varieties  are  being  produced,  of  almost  endless 
peculiar  qualities,  and  are  being  brought  into  the 
market  with  distinguishing  names. 

The  numerous  small  fruits  eaten  in  their  season  are 
equally  interesting  in  both  their  properties  and  his- 
tory with  those  briefly  noticed  in  the  preceding  pages  ; 
but  to  describe  even  their  properties  would  occupy 
more  space  than  we  can  afford.  The  omission,  how- 
ever, is  of  little  matter,,  as  the  relation  would  merely 
be  a  repetition  of  what  we  have  already  stated, — their, 
properties  as  w^ell  as  those  of  the  grape  being,  in  fact, 
identical  with  those  of  the  other  fruits  described. 


PART  VII. 

EYERAGES    AND  pONDlMENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


WATER  AND  STIMULANT  DRINKS. 


Fluids  essential  to  life — Tliey  are  injurious  when  not  dissipated 
from  the  body,  and  when  taken  to  excess — Much  evaporation 
dissipates  animal  heat,  which  is  essential  to  health — The  diges- 
tive functions  impaired  hj  fluids — Water  the  most  salutary  drink 
— It  prolongs  life  when  nutriment  can  not  be  obtained — Instance 
of  a  man  who  lived  fifty-three  days  on  water  alojie — Water  very 
beneficial  to  robust  persons  —  Pernicious  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks — Constant  exciterrient  exhausts  the  system — The  proprie- 
ty of  giving  stimulants  to  aged  and  infirm  persons  doubtful — • 
Alcoholic  drink  as  a  medicine  serves  an  invaluable  purpose. 


^LUIDS  are  essential  to  the  sustenance  of  the 


JL  animal  system,  and  the  demand  for  them,  es- 
pecially when  tliey  are  unattainable,  is  even  more 
imperious  than  that  for  solid  food.  The  whole 
system  permits  their  percolation  from  the  internal  to 
the  external  surface,  where  they  are  either  dissipated 
or  accumulated  within  the  external  integuments  in 
the  form  of  dropsy.  In  a  healthy  condition  of  the 
system  a  large  amount  is  thrown  off  with  the  excre- 
mentitious  fluids  and  semi-solids  ;  and  in  direct  ratio 
to  the  expenditure  ought  the  demand  to  be  supplied 
to  maintain  a  healthy  standard  ;  special  care,  how- 
ever, being  taken  not  to  indulge  in  drinking  an  exces- 
sive quantity  of  fluid  of  any  kind,  either  of  com- 


294 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


pounds  or  of  water  alone.  It  is  true  the  sj^stein 
generally  relieves  itself  of  fluids  mucli  more  readily 
than  of  solids;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that, 
when  it  is  overtaxed  in  this  respect,  an  unnatural  con- 
dition is  induced,  because  the  evaporation  of  fluids 
from  the  body  deprives  it  of  its  animal  heat,  which  is 
essential  to  the  maintenance  of  the  vital  forces.  Ex- 
cessive secretion,  too,  on  account  of  the  general  debility 
it  occasions,  predisposes  the  system  to  disease  of  a  most 
serious  character,  and,  if  the  secretion  is  obstructed,^ 
dropsy  is  the  result.  Food  is  impaired  in  its  nu- 
tritious qualities  if  .it  is  largely  diluted  when  taken 
into  the  stomach,  or  if  it  is  diluted  during  eating  ;  for 
in  such  cases  the  excess  of  fluid  has  first  to  be  absorb- 
ed, and  the  whole  has  to  be  reduced  to  a  semi-solid, 
mass  before  digestion  ])roperly  ensues.  And  it  can 
not  be  doubted  that  a  large  portion  of  gastric  juice  is 
thus  carried  oS*  with  the  fluids,  and  the  stomacli  is 
thereby  deprived  of  part  of  its  wonted  means  to  digest 
fl:>od.  The  gastric  juice,  however,  coagulates  milk  taken 
direct  from  the  breast,  as  in  the  case  of  the  nursing 
babe ;  and,  as  such  milk  is  not  acid,  the  process  is  a 
healthy  one,  for  it  prepares  the  food  for  digestion  by 
first  causing  the  fluid  to  be  absorbed.  It  is  the  curd  so 
formed  without  acid  that  supj^lies  the  increase  ot 
growth  in  the  young  that  feed  on  milk.  If  the  milk, 
when  thrown  off*,  proves  to  be  acid,  it  is  evident  that 
either  the  child's  stomach  1ms  been  overburdened  for 
some  time,  and  has  thus  become  enfeebled,  which  is 
the  most  probable,  or  that,  from  some  fault  in  the 
health  of  the  mother  or  of  the  nurse,  the  milk  is  not 
in  a  healthy  condition. 


WATER  AND  STIMULANT  DRINKS. 


295 


Water  is  tlie  most  reliable  and  grateful  drink  for 
man.  J^atnre  has  furnished  many  admixtures  of 
fluids  in  the  juices  of  fruit,  but  none  so  satisfying  to 
excessive  thirst  as  pure  water.  It  will  even  prolong 
life  when  nutritious  food  is  not  taken,  as  we  have  a 
well-known  instance  on  record,  reported  by  Dr.  Mc- 
JSTaughton  ia  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Albany  Insti- 
tute, in  the  State  of  ISTew-York,-'  for  1836.  The  case 
w^as  that  of  a  man  who  lived  upon  water  alone  for  tif- 
ty-three  days.  For  the  first  six  weeks  he  walked  out 
every  day,  and  at  times  spent  a  great  part  of  the  day 
in  the  woods.  Until  about  a  week  before  his  deatli 
he  shaved  himself,  and  even*  on  the  last  day  he  was 
able  to  sit  up  in  bed.  It  was  an  instance  of  voluntary 
abstinence,  resulting  from  a  delusion  under  wliich  the 
person  labored,  and  which  impelled  him  to  refuse  all 
proper  nourishment.  The  water,  which  alone  he  could 
be  induced  to  partake  of,  kept  the  secretions  diluted, 
and  the  blood  in  a  bland  condition  until  the  system 
was  exhausted  ;  and  thus  his  life  was  prolonged  by  his 
being  saved  from  the  effect  of  the  concentrated  fluids 
upon  the  brain,  the  result  of  which  would  have  been, 
in  the  last  stages  of  starvation,  to  have  produced  mad- 
ness, and  to  have  hastened  the  terminfition  of  life  by 
excessive  irritation  upon  the  great  nervous  centre. 

As  there  is,  in  all  persons  blessed  with  an  abun- 
dance of  vitality  and  robustness  of  body,  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  a  concentration  and  acridity  of  the  fluids, 
•such  persons  should  make  water  their  exclusive  drink, 
ill  order  that  they  may  maintain  a  normal  condition 
of  the  system.  If  any  persons  can  drink  large  quan- 
tities of  water  with  impunity,  it  is  those  of  full  and 


296 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


plethoric  habit,  and  tliey  would  actually  prolong 
their  lives  by  so  doing.  But  instead  of  this  tliey 
often,  to  their  injury,  indulge  in  drinking  wine,  malt 
liquors,  or  brandy  and  like  alcoholic  drinks  diluted 
with  water ;  or,  if  water  is  not  drunk  directly  with 
the  liquor,  they  will  usually  drink  freely  of  it  imme- 
diately after  pure  spirits  are  taken,  in  w^hich  case  it 
mitigates  the  influence  of  the  alcohol  in  proportion 
as  the  latter  is  diluted.  Water  tlius  operates  equally 
in  reducing  the  strength  of  all  stimulating  drinks,  (for 
wine  and  malt  liquors  contain  their  own  dilution,)  and 
acts  as  a  preventive  to  their  so  soon  destroying  or  ex- 
hausting the  nervous  system  as  they  would  if  taken 
undiluted ;  but  still  their  deleterious  influence  is  cer- 
tain, and  is  perceptible  after  death  upon  certain  organs. 
Let  the  beverage  partaken  of  be  beer,  wine,  or  brandy, 
by  its  use  such  persons  shorten  the  duration  of  life,  and 
in  direct  ratio  to  the  constitutional  inability  of  the 
system  to  resist  its  influence.  Thin  persons  often  have 
a  redundancy  of  vital  energy,  and  they  are  thereby  en- 
abled, when  indulging  to  excess,  to  resist  the  influence 
equal  to  those  who  have  a  large  development  of  fat 
and  muscle;  while,  owing  to  their  secreting  powers 
being  generally  more  a<3tive,  they  can  do  so  even  for 
a  longer  period  of  time. 

No  reflecting  and  intelligent  person  will  deny  that 
severe  and  constant  excitement  exhausts  the  ability  to 
sustain  a  long  continuance  of  excitement.  Alcohol  is 
a  stimulant  to  the  nervous  system,  and  not  only  ex- 
cites it  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  but  exlmusts  the 
ability  it  possesses  to  accumulate  power,  so  that  the 
whole  system  fails  to  perform  its  natural  functions  if 


WATER  AND  STIMULANT  DRINKS. 


297 


the  stimulant  is  witlilield  ;  for  then  the  hand  trembles, 
the  stomach  fails  to  digest,  the  mind  desponds,  and  a 
general  depression  supervenes.*  In  moderate  drink- 
ing, as  the  drinking  of  beer  and  ale,  a  desire  for  its 
continuance  is  very  manifest  to  all  who  indulge  in  it. 
This  desire  is  caused  by  the  nervous  system  failing  to 
sustain  its  wonted  healthy  standard  without  the  assist- 
ance of  a  stimulant.  After  a  time,  however,  there  will 
be  a  desire  for  an  increased  quantity  of  such  stimulant, 
and  this  is  a  direct  indication  of  the  inability  of  the 
nerves  to  endure  the  preternatural  excitement. 

Whenever  stimulants  have  to  be  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  relieving  a  depressed  mind,  the  dejection 
of  which  has  not  been  induced  by  some  misfortune  or 
disease,  it  is  evident  that  the  nervous  system  is  seri- 
ously impaired  by  over-stimulating.  Persons  can  habi- 
tuate themselves  to  the  use  of  a  certain  amount  of  stim- 
ulant drink,  and  of  narcotic  stimulants,  as,  for  instance, 
Indian  hemp^  opium,  etc.,  and  still  they  can  with 
much  care  guard  themselves  against  any  increase,  and 
seemingly  sustain  no  injmy  from  the  continuance. 
But  v/e  would  ask.  Why  should  they  induce  a  habit 
that  can  not  be  discontinued  without  their  suficring 
much  inconvenience,  and  can  not  be  continued  witliout 
their  running  the  risk  of  being  tempted  to  increase  its 
pernicious  influences?  Alcoholic  drinks,  tobacco,  opi- 
um, chloroform,  coffee,  a^nd  tea,  all,  vdien  indulged  in  to 
satiate  a  desire,  only  tend  stronglj^  to  an  increase  of 
quantity  without  limit,  owing  to  a  morbid  condition 
of  the  system  creating  a  craving  for  an  augmentation 

*  Tlie  withhold  in  (V  of  tobacco,  aftoi'  it  lias  been  usod  to  excess,  in- 


298 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


of  the  pleasurable  indulgence  which  they  are  pre- 
sumed to  afford. 

For  aged  and  infirm  persons  who  labor  under  an 
inability  to  digest  ordinary  food  to  their  physical  ad- 
vantage, it  is  straiigely  urged,  even  by  experienced 
physicians,  that  alcoholic  stimulants  in  the  form  of 
beer,  ale,  wine,  or  brandy  are  necessary  adjuvants.  In 
our  opinion  such  a  view  requires  careful  investigation. 
If  the  system  is  exhausted  beyond  recuperative  power, 
as  is  the  condition  of  many  aged  and  infirm  persons, 
the  efifect  of  administering  stimulants  will  be  pleasur- 
able, and  will  be  to  afiford  relief  for  a  very  limited 
time;  but  then  the  whole  powers  of  the  system  will 
be  exhausted  by  the  rapid  expenditure  of  the  vital 
forces,  which  can  thus  be  only  increased  for  the  time 
to  a  limited  extent,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  system 
will  thereby  be  hastened.  If,  however,  in  place  of 
stimulants,  such  persons  were  advised  nutritious  and 
easily  digested  food,  exercise,  and  a  proper  tempera- 
ture of  the  body,  so  that  they  might  maintain  m  statrt 
quo  the  sm.all  quantity  of  vital  force  they  possess,  their 
lives  might  most  probably  be  prolonged,  if  they  were 
not  invigorated  to  activity  of  muscular  efl^brt,  and 
their  health  thereby  much  improved..  As  persons 
whose  teeth  are  defective  and  whose  digestive  powers 
are  feeble,  most  commonly  desire  food  which  they  can 
not  masticate,  they  drink  excessive  quantities  of  such 
fluids  as  tea.  coflfee,  and  water,  and  thus  dilute  the 
digestive  secretions.  The  most  invariable  conditions 
of  such  persons  are  a  want  of  disposition  to  take  exer- 
cise, and  cold  feet  and  chilliness  induced  by  their  suf- 
fering themselves  to  be  thinly  clad ;  and  thus  their 


EXCESS  OF  FLUIDS  INJURIOUS  TO  CHILDREN'.  299 


circulation  is  enfeebled,  and  their  demand  for  food 
lessened.  Stimulant  drinks  are  no  substitutes  for  the 
deficiencies  of  the  aged  and  naturally  infirm,  and 
must  be  pernicious  in  tlieir  tendencies  when  taken  by 
such  persons,  as  they  exhaust  tlie  vital  forces  in  greater 
-rapidity  tlian  tlie  system  has  ability  to  generate  them. 

Alcoholic  diink,  as  a  medicament,  often  serves  a 
most  valuable  purpose  where  there  is  recuperative 
ability,  especially  in  cases  where  the  system  is  in  a 
state  of  torpidity  from  disease,  or  is  laboring  under 
some  extraordinary  depressing  influence  ;  but  it  must 
be  administered  promptly  and  carefully.  Being  a 
diffusible  stimulant,  it  excites  tlie  whole  system,  and 
if  skillfully  prescribed  is  higlily  beneiicial ;  but  if 
it  is  continued  after  the  desired  effect  is  permanently 
established,  injury  is  sustained  by  over-stimulation. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

EXCESS  OF  FLUIDS  INJURIOUS  TO  CHILDREN". 

Clnldren's  lieaUli  impaired  by  partaking  largely  of  fluids — Their 
digestive  powers  are  tliereby  enfeebled— A  cause  of  cliolera-in- 
fantum— Proper  food  for  the  young— How  to  keep  milk  for  in- 
fants— Regulations  to  be  observed  in  feeding  them. 

WE  once  more  repeat,  for  the  purpose  of  treating 
the  subject  more  thoroughly,  that  children  ara 
often  seriously  injured  by  being  allowed  to  drink  ex- 
cessively of  fluids.  By  such  indulgence  their  digestive 
powers  are  enfeebled,  and  an  irritable  condition  of  tlie 


300 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


st()mach  and  bowels  is  induced.  It  causes  tlieni  to 
liave  enlargement  and  hardness  of  tlie  abdomen,  and 
to  become  irritable  and  peevish  in  disposition;  and 
to  gratify  them  they  are  given  any  quantity  of  drink, 
which  is  constantly  increasing  the  difficulty.  In  the 
summer  season,  this  practice  induces  cholera-infan- 
tum,  which  is  at  times  curable  by  simpfy  withhold- 
ing all  drink  except  a  few  spoonfuls  at  a  time  of  weak 
tea,  and  not  very  frequently,  and  by  giving  a  nutritious 
diet — that  is,  fresh  meat  palatably  seasoned  with  salt, 
and  stale  sweet  fermented  bread  toasted  and  softened 
with  milk.  A  young  child  eiglit  or  ten  months  old 
should  be  allowed  to  suck  a  piece  of  lean  beef,  under- 
done and  uioderatelj  salted,  once  or  tw^ice  a  day,  if 
nursing  a  healthy  mother  or  nurse.  If  not,  it  should 
be  supplied,  in  addition  to  the  meat,  with  warm  milk 
from  a  well-fed  cow,  about  a  third  of  a  pint  at  a  time. 
Unless  milk  can  be  obtained  at  all  times  fresh  from  the 
cow,  that  procured  and  not  used  in  the  morning  should 
be  kept  through  the  day  in  a  bottle  closely  corked,  and, 
when  a  portion  of  it  is  taken  out,  recorked  immediate- 
ly. Care  should  be  taken  to  cleanse  the  bottle  every 
moriiini>:  with  warui  water  and  soda.  There  sliould 
be  stated  periods  for  giving  the  child  its  food,  and  an 
interval  of  not  less  than  three  hours  between  each 
peiiod,  so  that  ample  time  may  be  allowed  for  the  di- 
gestive process :  lirst,  for  the  fluid  portion  to.  be  ab- 
sorbed and  diffused,  and  then  for  the  undiluted  secre- 
tions to  act  healthfully  upon  the  remaining  semi- sol  id 
and  nutritious  portion  of  the  food  in  the  stomach.  If 
the  food  is  given  in  limited  quantity,  the  more  perfect 
will  be  the  prepared  nutriment  for  the  sustenance  and 


PREPARED  DRINKS. 


301 


growth  of  the  body.  Excess  in  quantity,  like  fre- 
quency in  drinking,  partially  arrests  the  digestive  pro- 
cess, as  it  dilutes  the  secretions  essential  to  the  pro- 
per digestive  action,  and  tends  to  a  fermentative  pro- 
cess. And,  as  a  consequent,  we  have  an  accumulation 
of  gases  and  flatulen<5y,  attended  with  acidity  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach,  which  produces  in  the  in- 
fant griping  pains,  and  most  frequently  looseness  of 
the  bowels,  and  in  the  adult  much  niconvenience. 
Fluids  in  quantity  have  the  least  injurious  effect  ou 
the  stomach  when  they  are  taken  one  hour  before  eat- 
ing, or  two  hours  after  ;  while  a  moderate  portion 
taken  at  meal  time,  with  solid  food,  is  not  injurious  to 
healthv  persons. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PEEPx\EED    DRINKS — ICED    WATER — -ACIDULATED  DRINKS 
 NUTRITIOUS  FLUIDS. 

Prepared  drinks  taken  for  gratification — Tlieir  effect  on  differently 
constituted  persons. — Iced  water  as  a  drink — It  is  sedative  and 
reduces  sensibility  —  Relieves  drunkenness  —  Is  hurtful  to  the 
mouth,  throat,  and  stomach — Its  sedative  effects  are  inj  urious — 
Acidulated  drinks  only  salutary  to  some  persons  —  Nutritious 
fluids — Soups  only  suitable  for  persons  of  energetic  digestive 
powers — Concentrated  j  uices  of  meat  beneficial. 

PREPARED  drinks  are  most  frequently  taken  to 
induce  a  sense  of  gratification,  other  than  tlie 
mere  satiation  of  thirst.  Hence  varieties  have  been 
introduced,  extolled  by  some  and  condemned  by  others. 


302 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


This  discrepancy  usually  arises  from  the  impunity  with 
which  some  persons  can  indulge  in  them,  while  others 
suffer  much  inconvenience  from  even  a  seemingly  mod- 
erate use  of  them.  The  latter  result  may  be  attribut- 
able to  weak  digestive  powers,  and  to  the  quantity  of 
fluid  taken,  rather  than  to  the  effect  of  the  ingredients 
from  which  the  beverages  are  made  ;  and  also  to  tlie 
drinks  being  taken  at  such  unfavorable  times  that  they 
interfere  w^ith  the  digestive  process.  To  drink  im- 
moderatel}^  of  any  prepared  beverage,  especially  if 
sweetened,  and  immediately  after  dinner,  causes  fer- 
mentation, and,  if  it  is  taken  on  a  w^eak  stomach,  acidity 
is  inevitably  the  result ;  but  if  it  is  taken  some  two  or 
three  hours  before  or  after  dinner,  no  ill  effects  will 
arise,  .particularly  if  the  beverage  is  only  slightly 
sweetened  and  a  portion  of  light  food  is  taken  with 
it.  However,  confirmed  dyspeptics  should  as  much 
as  possible  avoid  taking  drink  of  any  kind  at  all 
times,  especially  when  eating  nutritions  food,  and  for 
some  hours  after. 

Iced  water^  as  a  drink,  has  created  much  discussion 
in  reference  to  its  effects  upon  the  S3"stem.  To  take 
a  rational  view  of  the  subject,  we  must  take  into  con- 
sideration the  effect  that  cold,  under  different  circum- 
stances, produces  on  man.  All  medical  as  well  as 
other  authorities  admit  that  cold  is  a  sedative.  It 
lessens  the  activity  of  the  circulation  by  allaying  sen- 
sibility, and  in  proportion  to  its  extent  of  application 
and  continuance.  Consequently  it  has  been  used  to 
obviate  pain  in  the  performance  of  surgical  opera- 
tions, in  the  extraction  of  teeth,  etc.  And  recently, 
by  means  of  the  iced  bath,  it  has  been  em])l(>yed  to 


ICED  WATER.  303 

allay  mental  excitement,  the  result  of  long-continued 
drunkenness,  and  with  most  decided  success.*^  The 
effect  of  cold  upon  the  month,  throat,  and  stomach  is 
hurtful.  The  natural  condition  of  these  parts  is  to 
be  constantly  lubricated  and  rendered  moist  by  a 
peculiar  secretion.  They  have  a  sensitive  surface, 
which,  when  moderately  excited,  secretes  rapidly  and 
makes  a  most  decided  demand  upon  the  quantity  of 
fluids  in  the  system,  which  latter,  under  ordinaiy 
circumstances,  meets  the  demand  ;  but,  if  the  demand 
is  not  supplied,  the  system  is  notified  of  the  defi- 
ciency, and  of  tlie  supply  desired,  and  this  notifica- 
tion constitutes  what  is  known  as  thirst.  Cold  being 
a  sedative,  consequently  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water 
will  satisfy  the  thirst,  and  gratify  the  desire  for  mois- 
ture. But,  unfortunately,  we  are  always  desirous  of 
increasing  oar  gratification,  and  to  accomplish  this  we 
take  more  of  the  cold  water  than  is  beneficial  for  us, 
and  thereby  produce  a  morbid  derangement  of  the 
delicate  membranes  that  line  the  parts  alluded  to. 
There  is  an  increasing  disposition  in  the  economy  of 
the  animal  system  to  resist  extraordinary  influences, 
if  they  are  not  in  overwhelming  force.  The  effect  ot 
that  force  in  this  instance  is  to  induce  an  increased 
sensibility  of  these  tender  membranes,  which  creates 
a  greater  craving  for  cold  water  ;  and  this  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  still  further  increase  of  such  sensibility, 
amounting  even  to  a  sub-inflammation,  when  nothing 
but  ice  constantly  used  will  satiate  the  desire  for  cold,, 
and  its  use  often  results  in  bronchial  inflammations, 
a  thickening  of  the  membranes,  and  a  loss  of  voice. 

*  American  Medical  Times,  vol.  iv.  p.  143. 


304 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


Tlie  final  result  is  well  known,  namely,  bronchitis, 
rheumatism,  and  enlargement  of  the  glands.  Such 
are  some  of  the  eifects  of  taking  iced  water  too  fre- 
quently, even  in  small  quantities. 

Tliere  is  another  most  serious  result  that  may  be 
produced  by  taking  large  draughts  of  iced  water  sud- 
denly upon  an  empty  stomach,  or  when  much  ex- 
hausted by  heat.  The  sedative  effect  may  be  so  de- 
cided as  to  entirely  arrest  sensibility  in  the  coats  of 
the  stomach.  Sucli  a  fatal  consequence  has  been  ex- 
perienced even  by  tliose  accustomed  to  indulge  in  that 
beverage. 

A  moderate  use  of  iced  water  as  a  drink  is,  in  many 
instances,  of  very  great  advantage  to  persons  of  en- 
feebled digestive  powers,  as  a  very  small  quantity  of 
such  fluid  will  satiate  their  thirst.  In  fevers  it  allays 
the  feverish  excitement — in  slight  cases  it  obviates  the 
necessity  for  medicines  ;  while  in  the  treatment  of  those 
that  are  more  decided  it  is  a  most  valuable  adjuvant. 
All  that  is  required  to  enjoy  its  delightful  gratifica- 
tion is  to  be  moderate  in  the  use  of  it.  If  a  sensntion 
of  cold  or  a  tremulous  feeling  follows  the  drinking  of 
iced  water,  it  is  the  indication  that  it  has  an  injurious 
effect  upon  tlie  system,  and  then  a  person  ought  not  to 
indulge  in  it  again  until  well  satisfied  that  he  is  re- 
stored to  a  healthy  condition. 

Acidulated  drinks^  which  are  usually  sweetened  to 
make  them  palatable,  and  those  made  from  sweet 
juices,  are  not  only  grateful  but  salutary  to  some  per- 
sons, and,  under  peculiar  circumstances,  are  quite 
desirable.  But  to  those  predisposed  to  acidity  of  the 
stomach  tliey  are  decidedly  pernicious,  and  should 


NUTKITIOUS  FLUIDS. 


305 


never  be  indulged  in  by  them.  And  here  again  we 
must  remark  that  quantity  may  prove  injurious  even 
to  those  persons  who  may  be  benefited  by  a  moderate 
indulgence  in  these  drinks. 

The  same  objection,  with  reference  to  the  partak- 
ing of  quantity,  also  holds  good  w^ith  regard  to  those 
fluids  which  are  usually  considered  nutritious.  Soups, 
though  variously  made,  mostly  contain  the  juices  of 
meat ;  but,  in  order  to  judge  of  their  suitableness  for 
digestion,  and  to  determine  the  actual  amount  of 
nutriment  they  possess,  we  must  ascertain  tlie  pro- 
portion of  fluid  they  contain.  As  the  fluids  have 
first  to  be  absorbed  before  digestion  takes  place,  and 
as  the  digestive  secretions  are  diluted  and  absorbed 
w^ith  them,  the  amount  of  fluid  will  decid'e  whether 
there  will  rem»ain  a  sufiiciency  of  these  wonted  secre- 
tions to  digest  the  nutritious  matter,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, the  amount  of  solid  food  that  can  be  advantage- 
ously taken  after  the  soup  has  been  properly  digested. 

Persons  of  energetic  animal  powers,  who  are  ac- 
customed to  eating  soups,  are  not  generally  injured 
by  them  if  they  are  taken  in  moderation.  But  deli- 
cate persons  can  not  eat  them  with  impunity,  for  they 
usually  become  acid  in  the  stomach,  from  its  want 
of  ability  to  dispose  of  the  excessive  quantity  of  fluid 
and  to  digest  the  remainder,  and  the  result  which 
ensues  is  fermentation  instead  of  digestion. 

The  concentrated  juices  of  meat  are  admissible  in 
small  quantities,  and  are  of  great  value  when  properly 
taken  by  the  enfeebled  sick ;  but,  in  order  to  be  bene- 
ficial, their  use  requires  the  advice  of  an  experienced 
physician. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


TEA   AND  THE  TEA-PLANT. 

Tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cliocolate  form  nutritious  drinks — Tliey 
contain  a  peculiar  strengthening  power — Dilution  impairs  tlieir 
virtue,  and  is  injurious  to  persons  of  weak  digestive  powers — 
Cream  adds  to  tlieir  nutritious  qualities — Tea  first  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Dutch — Immense  amount  now  imported  into 
Europe  and  America — The  mode  of  preparing  tea  for  the  market 
— The  different  varieties — How  to  preserve  its  good  qualities — 
For  wkat  it  is  efficacious — It  is  an  antidote  for  poison. 

yrODEE-jN"  discoveries  in  the  science  of  chemistry 
^3JL  place  among  the  nutritious  aliments  tea^  <^offee^ 
cocoa^  and  chocolate^  as  well  as  Paraguay  tea^  used 
by  the  inhabitants  of  South-America.  All  of  these 
are  stated  to  contain  a  peculiar  quality  which  is 
strengthening  to  the  animal  system,  and  is  denomi- 
nated thein^  from  its  having  been  first  discovered  in 
tea,  or  thea^  the  name  of  the  plant  from  which  the  tea 
of  commerce  is  obtained.  A  similar  quality  after- 
ward discovered  to  be  contained  in  coffee,  and  called 
caffein^  was  subsequently  found  to  be  identical  with 
thein.  The  actual  character  of  this  substance  has 
been  discussed  by  chemists  and  physiologists,  and  it 
has  been  a  subject  of  doubt  whether  it  really  affords 
nutritious  matter,  or,  like  quinine^  which  is  obtained 
from  bark,  it  is  merely  an  excitant  of  tone  to  the  sys- 


TEA  AND  THE  TEA-PLANT. 


307 


tern.  Be  tins  as  it  may,  it  is  a  very  remarkable  fact  that 
the  use  of  those  articles  in  winch  it  is  found  is  almost 
universal,  and  the  beverages  they  produce  are  not  only 
drank  by  man,  but  are  approved  of  as  being  most  agree- 
able  to  his  palate.  And  from  this  fact  some  are  induced 
to  believe  that  it  must  have  been  their  nutritious  cha- 
racter that  led  to  their  introduction  and  has  sustained 
their  extraordinary  reputation.  That  the  beverages 
possess  most  refreshing  qualities  is  undeniable;  and 
as  these  qualities  are  proportionate  to  their  concentra- 
tion, it  is  evident  that  an  excessive  quantity  of  water 
lessens  their  favorable  tendencies.  The  superabun- 
dance of  fluid  has  an  injurious  effect  on  a  weak  sto- 
mach, and  more  especially  in  consequence  of  tlie  bev- 
erages being  sweetened,  for  they  are  thus 'rendered 
more  liable  to  become  acid. 

Rich  milk  or  cream  adds  greatly  to  their  nutritious 
quality,  if  they  are  not  too  much  dihited  with  water. 
The  greatest  amount  of  injury  sustained  from  the 
drinking  of  them  is  most  probably  due  to  a  super- 
abundance of  fluid  and  the  sweetening,  unless  it  be 
to  the  idiosyncrasy  or  peculiarity  of  a  person  render- 
ing him  unable  to  tolerate  one  or  other  of  the  beve- 
rages, which  is,  after  all,  a  matter  of  but  rare  occur- 
rence. 

Tea  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch 
East-India  Company,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  A  small  quantity  was  sent,  in  1666, 
from  Holland  to  Lords  Arlington  and  Ossory,  of  Eng- 
land ;  and,  in  1678,  4713  pounds  were  imported  into 
the  latter  country,  and  constituted  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  tea  trade.   At  the  present  time  con- 


308  BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 

siderably  over  100,000,000  pounds  are  annually  ex- 
ported from  China  to  Europe  and  America.  In  tlie 
season  1851-2,  there  were  exported  65,100,000  pounds 
to  Great  Britain;  34,327,000  to  tlie  United  States; 
8,829, 000  to  Australia  ;  3,000,000  to  Holland  ;  500,000 
to  India ;  and  2,200,000  to  other  countries— making  a 
to'al  of  113,956,000  pounds ;  while  at  the  same  time 
the  exports  overland  to  Russia  amounted  to  about 
15,000,000  pounds  a  year.  The  rapid  increase  in  the 
consumption  of  this  commodity  will  be  apparent  when 
we  state  that  exactly  thirty  years  before,  in  the  season 
1821-2,  the  amount  imported  into  Great  Britain  was 
only  28,787,600,  and  into  the  United  States,  only 
9,312,267  pounds.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30th,  1866,  we  imported  42,978,576  pounds,  valued 
at  $11,116,623,  of  which  30,199,000  pounds  came 
direct  from  China,  and  6,585,500  from  Japan.  And 
yet  it  is  stated  that,  if  Europe  and  America  were  to^ 
cease  purchasing  tea,  the  trade  would  not  be  materi- 
ally affected  in  China,  so  great  is  the  home  consump- 
tion. 

The  Theaviridis  and  Theahohea  are  the  plants  from  < 
which  the  varieties  of  tea  are  gathered.  Those  plants 
are  indigenous  to  China  and  Japan,  where  their  leaves 
have  been  used  for  making  the  beverage  from  time 
immemorial ;  and,  from  tlie  days  of  Confucius,  tea  has 
been  the  constant  theme  of  the  poets  of  the  Flowery 
Land.  Though  tea  is  more  or  less  cultivated  for  local 
consumption  in  all  the  provinces  of  China,  that  which 
is  exported  is  grown  in  a  part  of  the  empire  distin- 
guished as  the  ^'  tea-country,"  and  situated  be  .wen 
25°  and  32^  north  latitude,  and  115°  and  122^  ...ist 


TEA  AND  THE  TEA-PLANT. 


309 


longitude.  The  green  tea  district  is  about  seven  hun- 
dred miles  from  Canton,  and  the  Tjlack  tea  district 
about  four  hundred  miles  from  tliat  city.  Both  varie- 
ties are  conveyed  to.  the  sea-ports  by  land  carriage, 
chiefly  by  porters,  and  by  the  canals. 

There  are  but  few  species  of  the  Thea^  which  is  of 
the  same  genera  as  the  Camellia,  The  Thea  viridis 
is  said  to  be  a  much  stronger  growing  plant  than  the 
Thea  hohea.  It  flowers  earlier  in  the  season,  and 
bears  much  larger  leaves,  those  of  healthy  plants 
being  from  three  to  four  inches  long.  Both  plants 
may  be  found  growing  in  many  of  our  conservatories 
to  great  perfection.  The  first-named  variety  is  sup- 
posed to  furnish  the  leaves  for  the  preparation  of 
green  tea.  The  smaller  leaves  of  the  TMa  hohea  are 
more  numerous  on  the  plant,  and  of  a  darker  green, 
and,  most  curious  to  relate,  are  cured  and  known  as 
Nach  tea. 

Much  special  care  is  taken  by  the  Chinese,  in  the 
gathering  of  the  leaves,  to  preserve  them  Irom  injury 
Of  taint.  Collectors  are  trained  for  the  purpose  at 
an  early  age ;  and,  for  weeks  before  the  harvest  com- 
mences, they  are  prohibited  from  eating  fish,  or  any 
other  food  of  strong  odor.  They  are  also  obliged 
to  take  a  bath  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and,  when 
gathering,  are  not  allowed  to  touch  the  leaves  with 
the  naked  fingers. 

It  is  stated  that  the  finest  quality  of  leaves  for 
making  tea  is  often  seriously  injured  by  the  delay  of 
one  night  after  they  are  ready  to  pluck,  and  thus  the 
necessity  for  their  being  promptly  gathered.  Great 
care  is  observed  to  prevent  noxious  weeds  from  grow- 


310 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


ing  among  the  plants,  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  in- 
jurious to  the  leaves.  The  finest  qualities  are  obtained 
from  plants  about  three  or  four  years  old :  by  the  time 
the  trees  have  arrived  at  the  age  of  six  years,  the  pro- 
duce has  depreciated  in  quality,  and  they  are  then 
removed  for  a  young  plantation  which  is  grown  from 
seed.  The  leaves  are  gathered  from  one  to  four  times 
a  year,  but  most  commonly  the  gathering  is  divided 
into  three  periods,  the  first  about  the  middle  of  April, 
the  second  at  midsumm.er,  and  the  last  in  the  latter 
part  of  August.  The  tender  leaves  gathered  in  the 
spring  are  those  most  prized  for  their  good  qualities 
as  to  color  and  aromatic  flavor.  Those  of  the  second 
gathering  are  not  of  so  good  a  color,  and  are  consi- 
dered inferior  in  flavor  ;  while  those  of  the  hist  are  of 
a  darker  green,  and  of  still  inferior  quality. 

The  leav^es,  as  soon  as  gathered,  are  put  into  wide, 
shallow  baskets,  and  placed  in  the  air  for  several 
hours,  avoiding  a  strong  wind.  The  next  process 
consists  in  wilting  them  on  cast-iron  plates  heated 
by  charcoal — about  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  the 
leaves  being  so  treated  at  a  time.  They  are  con- 
stantly being  moved  about  with  a  kind  of  brush  till 
they  are  properly  wilted,  when  they  are  taken  in 
baskets  to  be  rolled  in  the  hands,  after  which  process 
they  are  again  placed  on  the  heatad  plates,  but  now 
of  a  lower  degree  of  heat,  so  as  to  dry  them  perfectly 
without  scorching  them  or  injuring  their  flavor.  The 
leaves  are  then  placed  on  a  table  and  carefully  ex- 
amined, and  every  defective  leaf  taken  out.  The 
processes  here  described  are,  however,  only  applied  to 
teas  of  the  second  quality,  those  of  the  first  quality 


TEA  AND  THE  TEA-PLANT. 


311 


beino;  rolled  and  dried  in  a  most  careful  manner,  with- 
ont  artificial  heat  to  hasten  their  preparation. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  green  tea.  The  first  is  Gun- 
powder  tea,  which  ,  is  made  from  young  leaves  that 
have  not  arrived  at  maturity  of  growth,  and  are  dried 
in  the  air ;  this  is  the  most  highly  valued  article  of 
tea.  The  next  consists  of  the  Hysons,  which  are  very 
carefully  picked,  and  dried  with  a  moderate  degree 
of  heat ;  they  are  called  by  the  natives  Ilyssaen,  The 
third,  called  Song-lo^  a  name  derived  from  the  moun- 
tain on  which  it  grows,  is  the  most  common  green  tea. 

The  hlach  teas  are  of  five  kinds,  and  take  their 
names  from  a  mountain  covered  with  tea  plantations 
and  called  Bou-y,  The  first  quality  is  called  Sou- 
chong— the  Chinese  name  being  /  the  next, 
Pehoe,  named  by  the  cultivators  Back-ho  or  Paclc-ho  ; 
the  third,  Congou^  or  Kong-fon  /  and  the  other  two 
are  teas  made  from  alder  loaves  and  called  Padre- 
Souchong^  or  Paosut'tcha,  The  latter  are  highly 
esteemed  for  some  supposed  medicinal  quality. 

The  Chinese  consider  tea  too  narcotic  or  stupefying 
when  it  is  used  in  less  than  a  year  from  the  time  that 
it  is  cured.  They  drink  the  infusion  at  all  their 
meals,  and  without  milk  or  sugar.  The  higher  classes 
take  it  very  strong  and  hot,  while  the  laboring  peo^ 
pie  are  compelled  to  take  it  very  weak.  The  latter 
often  beg  the  tea-leaves  that  have  been  used  by  foreign- 
ers, and  boil  them  over  again  ;  and  they  pronounce  the 
tea  they  thus  obtain  as  better  than  that  w'hich  they 
can  afl:brd  to  purchase. 

To  preserve  all  the  good  qualities  in  tea,  it  should 
be  confined  in  narrow-necked,  glazed  earthen  jars,  kept 


312 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


careful!}^  stopped.  The  Chinese  have  very  costly  jars 
of  this  kind  for  the  purpose ;  and,  it  is  said,  use  the 
flowers  of  the  plant,  or  the  expressed  oil  of  them,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  their  tea  a  fine  aroma.  The  teas 
sent  to  us  are  often  much  adulterated  by  the  Chinese, 
who  cure  large  amounts  of  foreign  leaves  for  the 
purpose  of  mixing. 

Tea  is  less  suited  for  young  persons  than  for  adults 
and  aged  persons.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
not  a  sufficient  substitute  for  nutritious  food.  Many 
aged  people  prefer  their  cup  of  tea  to  partaking  of 
more  nourishing  diet ;  but  the  practice  of  so  taking  it 
is  much  to  their  injury,  as  almost  all  they  obtain  from 
the  tea,  if  takea  strong  and  in  small  quantity,  (which 
is  the  most  beneficial  method,)  is  a  pleasurable  sensa- 
tion and  an  invigoration  of  the  system  for  the  recep- 
tion of  nutriment,  as  it  promotes  digestion.  But,  as 
it  is  usually  taken  with  milk  and  sugar,  from  both  of 
which  a  little  sustenance  is  obtained,  it  satisfies  the 
appetite  to  the  exclusion  of  a  desire  for  such  food  as 
is  essential  to  the  better  nourishment  of  the  system. 

Tea  will  relieve  intoxication  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  is  most  salutary  in  alleviating  intense  mental  ex- 
citement. As  an  antidote  for  poison  it  is  nearly  as 
pow^erful  a  remedy  as  coff'ee.  Cases  of  poisoning  by 
tartarized  antimony  have  been  relieved  by  the  ad- 
ministration of  a  very  strong  infusion  of  tea. 


CHAPTER  V. 


COFFEE  AND  ITS  PE,EPAKATION. 

The  flowers  of  tlie  coffee-tree  exceedingly  fragrant — The  fruit  and 
seed — Coffee  sold  at  Constantinople  in  1554 — Was  supposed  to  be 
intoxicating  and  its  use  forbidden — It  was  afterward  permitted 
and  taxed — Great  consumption  of  coffee  by  the  Turks — It  was 
carried  westward  by  the  Venetians — The  coffee  plant  first  intro- 
duced into  Europe  in  1714 — Was  conveyed  to  the  West  Indies — 
Coffee  indigenous  in  Arabia — Mode  of  planting  ajid  of  gathering 
the  berries — How  coffee  should  be  roasted — The  proper  way  to 
prepare  the  beverage — When  sugar  and  milk  should  be  added 
— The  beneficial  effects  of  coffee  in  peculiar  cases — Persons  to 
whom  it  is  injurious — Consumption  of  coffee  in  the  United  States. 

TFIE  Coffee  plant  or  tree  {Coffee  AraJnoa^  and 
called  by  some  Jasminiim  Arahicum^  from 
the  deliclously  sweet  jasmine-like  flowers  wliicli  it 
bears)  possesses,  when  blooming,  such  a  sweet  and 
powerful  fragrance  that  persons  unaccustomed  to  its 
odor,  upon  passing  a  coffee  plantation  in  flower,  be- 
come intoxicated  even  to  unsteadiness  of  step.  The 
fruit  is  a  red  berry  about  the  size  of  a  cherry  ;  the 
pulp  is  quite  insipid,  and  incloses  two  seeds  formed  as 
we  receive  them;  but  in  the  fruit  these  seeds  are 
covered  with  a  membrane,  called  parchment,  that 
adlieres  to  them  after  tlie  pulp  is  taken  off,  and  has 
to  be  removed  by  machinery.  The  coffee- tree  is  of 
mjJerate  size,  grows  erect  from  eight  to  .welve  feet 


314 


BEVERAGES  A]^D  CON^DIMENTS. 


high,  and  lias  long  undivided  brandies,  wliieh  are 
very  slender,  bend  downward,  and  are  furnished  with 
evergreen  leaves.  The  blossoms  are  white  and  set 
upon  short  flat  stocks,  and,  as  we  have  remarked,  re- 
semble the  flow^ers  of  the  jasmine. 

Coffee  was  publicly  sold  in  1554  at  Constantinople, 
where  it  was  introduced  as  a  beverage  by  Megalled- 
DiN,  Mufti  of  Aden,  in  Arabia  Felix,  who  had  become 
acquainted  with  it  in  Persia.  The  Syrian  govern- 
ment, however,  interdicted  its  general  introduction, 
on  the  supposition  that  it  produced  intoxication,  which 
is  incompatible  with  the  strictness  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan discipline  ;  and  so  great  was  the  surveillance, 
that,  at  the  capital  of  Turkey,  the  Mufti  ordered  the 
police  to  prevent  any  one  from  drinking  coffee.  But 
the  passi(m  among  the  people  for  its  use  was  so  great, 
that  it  was  found  impossible  to  enforce  the  proliibition  ; 
and  so  the  government  becoming  aware  of  this  fact, 
and  knowing  that  the  coffee  plant  was  indigenous  to 
its  own  country,  then  sought  to  make  it  contribute  to 
its  own  advantage  by  levying  a  tax  upon  the  sale  of 
the  beverage,  which  impost  subsequently  produced  a 
large  revenue.  The  consumption  of  cofiee  by  the 
Turks  is  now  so  great  as  to  induce  the  inference  that 
it  takes  among  them  the  place  filled  in  other  countries 
by  wine  and  spirituous  liquors,  which  are  prohibited 
by  the  Moslem  religion.  And  a  supposed  necessity  for 
a  supply  of  coffee  is  with  them  made  a  matter  of  such 
imperative  importance  that  a  man's  w^ife,  w^ho  may 
be  deprived  of  what  is  considered  a  reasonable  quan 
tity,  can  present  the  deprivation  as  a  legal  cause  for 
a  divorce. 


COFFEE  AND  ITS  PKEPARATIOX. 


315 


The  Venetians,  who  traded  much  with  the  Levant, 
wei'e  the  first  to  promote  cofiee  in  its  advance  west- 
ward. In  1615,  Peter  de  la  Ville,  a  Venetian  at 
Constantinople,  acquainted  his  friends  in  Italy  of  his 
intention  to  bring  some  home,  and  spoke  of  it  as  au 
article  then  unknown  in  that  country.  In  1671,  was 
opened  in  Marseilles  the  first  coffee-house  established 
in  that  city,  where  prepared  coffee  was  sold  to  the 
public  as  a  beverage.  It  w^ould  appear  to  have  been 
made  a  subject  of  impost  immediately  on  its  introduc- 
tion into  England,  as  we  find  a  duty  of  fourpence  per 
gallon  of  cofiee  recorded  in  the  Statute  Book  for  1660. 
From  that  time  the  use  of  coffee  as  a  beverage  extend- 
ed most  rapidly  ;  in  England  it  was  sojd  in  public- 
houses,  and  had  the  advance  of  tea  not  only  in  the 
public  estimation  but  in  the  date  of  its  introduc- 
tion. 

The  first  coffee-tree  introduced  to  notice  in  Europe 
was  in  1714  presented  by  the  magistrates  of  Amster- 
dam to  Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France,  and  by  him  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  celebrated  botanist,  Jussieu. 
Some  years  after  this,  plants  were  conveyed  to  Suri- 
nam, Cayenne,  and  Martinique ;  and  in  a  short  time 
tlie  growing  of  coffee  spread  most  rapidly.  In  1732, 
its  cultivation  w^as  considered  of  sufficient  importance 
in  Jamaica  to  call  forth  an  act  of  the  legislature  in 
its  favor. 

The  coffee-tree  is  indigenous  'to  Arabia.  The 
several  varieties  are  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  one  parent  stock,  and  to  have  been  created  by 
climatic  influence.  All,  however,  require  a  uniform 
warm  climate  of  a  temperature  of  not  less  than  fifty- 


31G 


BEVEKAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


five  degrees  of  Falirenlieit.  Excessive  lieat  is  qnite 
injurious  to  the  production  of  coffee,  consequently 
cultivators  plant  at  intervals,  tlirougliout  the  coffee 
field,  rows  of  umbrageous  trees  which  screen  the  coffee- 
trees  from  the  overpowering  rays  of  the  sun.  The  plants 
are  in  full  bearing  after  three  year's  growth.  The 
flowering  lasts  about  two  days.  In  one  night  the  blos- 
soms expand  and  present  a  most  peculiar  effect,  the 
appearance  being  very  like  that  of  a  light  snow-storm. 
The  fruit  is  known  to  be  ripe  when  the  dark  red  ber- 
ries begin  to  fall  from  the  trees.  In  Arabia,  cloths  are 
spread  beneath  the  trees,  as  the  people  of  that  country 
do  not  pluck  the  fruit,  but  allow  it  to  fall,  which  may 
account  somewhat  for  the  superior  quality  of  the 
Arabian  coffee.  Coffee  grown  in  the  West-Indies, 
upon  elevated,  dry,  light  soil,  is  quite  equal,  and  by 
some  is  even  preferred  to  that  of  Eastern  growth. 
Coffee  is  much  improved  by  being  kept  for  a  time, 
and  this  is  most  probably  the  only  reason  why  the 
Turkish  coffee  possesses  such  good  qualities. 

Much  depends  upon  the  roasting  of  coffee.  The 
application  of  heat  produces  important  changes  ;  it 
causes  the  bean  to  increase  in  size  and  to  lose  about 
one  third  of  its  w^eight,  and  a  volatile  oil,  possessing  a 
very  aromatic  odor,  to  exude  upon  the  surface  of  the 
seed.  It  should  be  roasted  in  a  close  revolving 
cylinder,  over  a  moderate  fire,  until  it  changes  to  a 
chestnut  brown  color ;  it  should  then  be  thrown  into 
a  glazed  earthen  vessel,  having  a  close-fitting  cover, 
'and,  after  beino;  well  shaken  for  about  five  or  ten 
minutes,  set  in  a  very  cool  place — the  cooler  the  bet- 
ter— in  order  to  cause  it  to  retain  the  volatile  oil 


COFFEE  AND  ITS  PREPARATION. 


317 


which  imparts  to  it  its.  delightful  aroma.  When 
ground,  it  should  be  only  in  quantity  required  for  im- 
mediate use  ;  and  when  the  infusion  is  being  prepared, 
care  should  be  observed  to  retain  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  vapor,  for  which  purpose  coffee-pots  are  now 
constructed,  and  are  valuable  inventions.  The  clari- 
fying of  coffee  by  means  of  the  whites  of  eggs  and 
fish-skin  deprives  it  of  much  of  its  good  qualities — 
straining  is  far  preferable.  Milk,  when  used,  should 
be  hot.  Milk  and  sugar  add  much  to  the  nourishing 
qualities  of  the  beverage,  and  assist  in  making  it  a 
most  delicious  adjunct  to  a  breakfast.  When  taken 
after  dinner,  the  milk  and  sugar  should  be  omitted, 
as  it  is  then  intended  only  as  a  promoter  of  digestion, 
and  the  desired  effect  is  much  more  decided  witliout 
those  ingredients. 

Like  tea,  only  much  more  effectually,  coflfee  coun- 
teracts the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  brain 
and  nervous  system.  It  neutralizes  the  virulent 
effects  of  several  of  the  vegetable  poisons,  such  as 
opium  and  belladonna,  and  arrests  excessive  vomiting 
by  allaying  the  nervous  irritation  of  the  stomach. 
Its  influence  on  the  brain  is  most  happy,  as  it  iu- 
creases  the  activity  and  energy  of  that  organ,  and  re- 
moves a  sense  of  fatigue  and  dullness  of  disposition. 
It  also  resists  the  influence  of  cold  and  damp,  and 
therefore  is  of  great  service  to  those  exposed  to  a 
humid  atmosphere  in  the  night,  while  it  invigorates 
the  system  in  a  warm  climate.  These  good  qualities 
account  for  the  universal  use  of  coffee,  as  well  as  for  its 
abuse,  for  it  is  often  taken  in  excessive  quantities  to 
the  exclusion  of  more  nutritious  food.    It  should  not 


318 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


be  indulged  in  by  persons  of  a  plethoric  or  full  habit, 
as  its  tendency  is  to  increase  the  circulation  ;  conse- 
quently in  persons  thus  circumstanced  it  induces  such 
serious  inconveniences  as  vertigo,  congestions,  and  en- 
gorgements of  blood-vessels  in  parts  of  the  body  pre- 
disposed to  such  ailments. 

Previous  to  1860,  about  177,111,923  pounds  of 
coffee  were  annually  consumed  in  the  United  States  ; 
but  in  1865,  in  consequence  of  the  increase  of  price, 
the  consumption  fell  to  only  109.086,703  pounds,  be- 
ing a  decrease  of  68,025,220  pounds  for  that  year. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE. 

Chocolate  made  fromtlie  seeds  of  tlie  Tlieobroma — The  Theohroma 
cacao  cultivated  in  Mexico  in  the  time  of  the  Aztecs — Uses  and 
properties  of  its  seed — The  cacao  tree,  its  foliage,  flowers,  and 
fruit — Tiie  modes  of  manufacturing  chocolate — Cooqa  and 
broma — The  use  of  chocolate  in  various  countries. 

CHOCOLATE  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  several 
varieties  of  the  Theohroma  trees,  as  the  T,  cacao^ 
tlie  T.  speciosumj^  the  T,  sylvestre^  and  the  T,  siibin- 
camim  ;  but  principally  from  the  first-named.  Theo- 
hroma, which  signifies  ''food  for  a  god,"  was  the 
generic  name  given  to  these  trees  by  Lin^t^us  as  a 
mark  of  his  opinion  of  the  excellent  qualities  of  their 
seeds.  The  Theohroma  cacao  has  been  cultivated  in 
Mexico  ever  since  the  days  of  Mootezuma,  and  has 


COCOA  AND  CHOCOLATE. 


319 


been  largely  transplanted  by  tlie  Spaniards  into  tlieir 
dependencies.  In  the  Mexican  langnage  its  seeds  are 
called  cacava  quahidtl^  and  the  preparation  from 
them,  chocolatl.  In. the  times  of  the  Aztec  kings  the 
seeds  Avere  made  use  of  as  money,  and  acted  the  part 
of  small  coins.  For  their  good  properties  as  a  diet 
they  have  been  highly  extolled  to  the  present  day 
by  all  who  have  become  acquainted  with  their  use. 
ScHRADER  analysed  the  cacao  seeds,  and  discovered  in 
them  the  same  valuable  principle  that  exists  in  coffee 
and  tea,  thein  or  caffein^  which  contains  the  most 
nitrogenized  substance  found  in  vegetables. 

The  cacao  tree  seldom  rises  above  the  height  of 
twenty  feet ;  its  leaves  are  oblong  and  pointed,  and  of 
large  size;  and  its  flowers  are  small  and  of  a  pale  red 
color.  These  flowers  are  succeeded  by  oval-pointed 
pods,  which  contain  a  white  pithy  substance  that  is 
disagreeable  to  the  taste  and  surrounds  numerous  seeds, 
each  of  about  the  size  of  an  almond  kernel,  but  of  a 
rounder  form.  Some  pods  will  contain  as  many  as  a 
hundred  of  these  seeds.  The  outer  covering  of  the 
seeds  is  a  thin  skin  or  husk  of  a  light  reddish-brown 
color,  but  internally  they  are  of  a  dark-brov/n  color. 
They  are  very  oily  and  nutritious,  although  the  Span- 
iards deny  this  fact,  and  thus  excuse  themselves  for 
drinking  chocolate  on  fast-days. 

The  natives  of  Mexico  prepare  chocolate  for  use  in 
the  following  manner,  and  have  done  so  from  the  ear- 
liest ages  to  the  present  time  :  They  first  roast  the 
seeds  of  the  cacao  in  earthen  pots,  and  then  remove 
the  husks,  after  which  they  beat  the  seeds  between 
two  stones,  and  form  the  mass  into  cakes  with  the 


320 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


luuids.  The  process  adopted  in  our  own  country  dif- 
fers from  this  only  in  so  far  that  instead  of  being  beaten 
the  seeds  are  ground,  so  as  to  enable  the  manufactnrer 
the  better  to  form  the  mass  into  a  smooth  paste,  to 
which  he  adds  some  flavoring,  and  then  molds  it  into 
tlie  shape  in  which  the  chocolate  is  sold.  Chocolate, 
when  pure,  leaves  but  a  small  residuum  in  the  cup  ;  it 
is,  however,  often  much  adulterated  with  browned 
flour  and  butter,  which  make  it  softer  than  the  genuine 
article,  and  render  it  ofiensive  to  weak  stomachs. 
Chocolate  cakes  should  be  kept  from  the  air  as  much 
as  possible,  as,  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  they 
have  a  tendency  to  become  rancid  and  unfit  for  use. 

C(9(^6>(Q^  is  the  beverage  made  from  the  husks  or  shells 
of  the  cacao  seed,  which  always  have  a  small  portion 
of  the  oil  in  them.  It  is  w^ell  adapted  for  delicate 
persons.  The  same  beverage,  when  made  somewhat 
richer,  is  called  hroma.  The  fixed  oil  that  is  expressed 
from  the  seed  is  of  a  semi-solid  consistence,  and  is 
used  for  making  cosmetics. 

Chocolate  is  not  extensively  used  in  the  United 
States  ;  but,  when  used,  it  is  generally  made  too  rich 
and  oppressive  to  the  digestive  organs  ;  consequently 
cocoa  and*  broma  are  more  advised  to  be  taken  as 
beverages  when  tea  and  coffee  are  inadmissible.  In 
France,  it  is  held  in  great  esteem  ;  in  Spain,  it  consti- 
tutes the  ordinary  breakfast ;  and  in  Mexico,  according 
to  Humboldt,  it  is  not  considered  an  object  of  luxury  , 
but  rather  one  of  prime  necessity. 


OHAPTEH  VII. 


CONDIMENTS  AND  THP:m  QUALITIES. 

Condiments  not  only  render  food  palatable,  but  are  promoters  of 
digestion — The  more  acrid  varieties  pernicious — The  condiments 
most  conducive  to  health — Salt  and  vinegar — Sugar,  cream,  but- 
ter, and  oil  render  rich  food  obnoxious,  but  are  advantageous 
when  taken  with  plain  food — Aromatic  spices  must  be  taken  with 
caution — Onions  and  garlic  have  a  sedative  effect — When  sugar 
disagrees  with  dyspeptics — Salt  essential  to  sustain  health — Its 
absence  engenders  worms  in  the  stomach — Salt  provisions  pro- 
duce scurvy — Vinegar  in  moderation  conducive  to  health — It 
renders  fatty  substances  more  digestible — When  taken  in  excess^ 
it  is  injurious. 

THOUGH  Coiullments  deinaiid  a  distinct  chapter 
in  a  Avork  like  this,  still  they  are  difficult  to 
separate  and  define,  as  such  articles  as  tlie  onion,  but- 
ter, sugar,  and  oil — nearly  all  of  which  we  have  al- 
ready discussed — may  be  classed  among  ijieni.  The 
nature  of  condiments,  as  generally  viewed,  is  to  im- 
part a  zest  to  food,  to  heighten  its  taste  by  an  added 
relish,  and  thus  to  render  it  more  palatable.  But  this 
is  only  one  of  the  essential  qualities  they  possess.  The 
others  are  the  promotion  of  digestion  and  the  correc- 
tion of  the  injurious  properties  of  certain  kinds  of 
food — in  a  word,  condiments  stimulate  into  action  the 
*  over-tasked  digestive  organs.  It  is  not,  however, 
claimed  for  thcni  that  they  improve  the  tone  of  these 


322 


BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS. 


organs ;  and,  consequently,  they  may  be  dispensed  with 
for  a  time  without  injury.  But  persons  Avho  accus- 
tom thems.elves  to  the  use  of  the  more  acrid  varieties 
find  it  impossible  to  do  w^ithout  them,  and  have  even 
to  increase  the  quantity  in  order  to  satisfy  their  de- 
sire for  them  in  their  food,  wdiicli  they  thus  render  un- 
palatable and  obnoxious  to  the  natural  taste  ;  and  the 
result  is  that,  in  course  of  time,  such  persons  can  not 
digest  their  food  without  them. 

There  are,  however,  some  condiments,  such  as  salt 
and 'yme^a^',  wdiich  are  of  actual  benefit  and  are  requi- 
site to  sustain  tlie  system ;  but  they  must  be  taken  in 
moderation,  otherwise  they  will  impair  the  health. 
Sicgar^  cream,  hutter^  and  oil  often  invite  the  appetite 
to  an  indulgence  in  an  excess  of  rich  food,  and  really 
render  such  food  more  obnoxious  by  their  intermixture 
with  jt ;  but  when  they  are  taken  in  moderate  quan- 
tity w^itli  plain  food,  they  prove  of  actual  advantage 
even  to  a  delicate  person.  As  mustard^  pepper^ 
all  the  aroinatic  spices  contain  largely  of  volatile  oil, 
the  properties  of  which  stimulate  the  nervous  system, 
they  should  be  taken  with  extreme  caution.  If  taken 
to  excess,  their  tendency  is  to  im[)air  the  normal  tone 
of  the  nervous  system.  The  alliaceous  plants, — garlic^ 
onions^  etc., — on  the  contrary,  have  a  sedative  influence 
upon  the  nervous  system,  and  are  nutritious,  especially 
wdien  boiled.  This  influence  has  naturally  induced 
a  fondness  for  them ;  but  as  the  efiect  produced  is 
very  moderate,  no  injury  can  be  sustained  from  it. 

Siigar^M  eaten  in  a  concentrated  form — as  in  candies, 
preserves,  and  rich  syrups — does  not  generally  ofiend 
tlie  stomach  ;  but  when  it  is  much  diluted — as  in  cof- 


CONDIMENTS  AND  THJilK  QUALITIES. 


323 


fee,  tea,  or  other  sweetened  drinks — it  lias  a  decided 
tendency  to  ferment  and  to  form  acid.  .  And  thus  it 
is  that  tea  and  cofiee  disagree  with  dyspeptics  who' 
can  eat  pure  sugar  with  impunity.  But  from  this  it 
must  not  be  inferred  that  dyspeptics  can  eat  diet  con- 
taining much  sweetening  without  incurring  inconve- 
nience and  suffering  from  the  indulgence. 

Salt  is  essential  to  the  sustaining  of  liealth  in  nearly 
all  animals.  Those  in  a  wild  state  obtain  it  from  the 
earth  in  certain  localities,  which  in  this  country  are 
called  salt-licks  /  and  as  these  places  are  regularly 
visited  and  licked  by  wild  beasts,  they  are  often 
watched  b}^  the  sportsman  in  pursuit  of  game.  Every 
farmer  regularly  supplies  his  cattle  with  salt  in  order 
to  keep  them  in  health. 

Children  who  have  not  been  supplied  with  sufficient 
salt  in  their  food  are  usually  afflicted  with  worms; 
they  become  pale  and  bloated,  and  are  without  ability 
to  digest  their  food.  When  thus  afflicted,  a  judicious 
use  of  salt  for  a  time  will  improve  their  health  and 
rid  them  of  the  worms.  Consequently,  salt  has  been 
recommended  as  a  remedy  for  the  removal  of  worms 
in  both  children  and  cattle. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Holland,''  says  Dr.  Paris, 
"  ordained  men  to  be  kept  on  bread  alone  unmixed 
with  salt  as  the  severest  punishment  that  could  be  in- 
flicted upon  them  in  their  moist  climate.  The  effect 
was  horrible  ;  these  wretched  criminals  are  said  to 
have  been  devoured  by  vforms  engendered  in  their 
own  stomachs.""^ 

Salt  provisions  can  no  more  be  endured  with  im 
^  Paris  on  Diet,  p.  78. 


324 


BEVERAGES   AND  CONDIMENTS. 


pimity  during  confinement  tlian  tlie  deprivation  of 
salt,  as,  under  such  circumstances,  tliey  are  supposed 
to  produce  the  scurvy  ;  while,  in  any  case,  if  they  are 
too  much  indulged  in,  or  if  salt  is  eaten  in  excessive 
quantity,  disease  of  a  milder  form  will  be  engendered. 
We  thus  learn  that  it  is  necessary  to  take  even  the 
essentials  to  health  in  moderation. 

Vinegar^  in  moderate  amount,  is  also  conducive 
to  health,  and  more  especially  if  it  is  taken  with 
cellulace  vegetables.  It  is  supposed  by  Dr.  Paris  to 
render  fatty,  gelatinous  substances  more  digestible. 
And  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  vinegar  dissolves 
muscular  fibre — that  is,  lean  meat — so  that  it  will  be- 
come like  jelly  and  be  soluble  in  hot  water.  This 
latter  fact  was  discovered  by  a  very  noted  chemist, 
Berzelius.  The  consequence  is  that,  if  it  is  taken  into 
the  system  in  excess,  it  must  be  injurious ;  and  it  is 
well  known  that  emaciation  is  produced  in  persons 
who  freely  indulge  in  the  eating  of  pickles  or  lemons, 
the  acids  they  contain  being  very  detrimental  to  the  sto- 
mach. Persons  who  in  yontli  have  partaken  overmuch 
of  these  acids  have  suffered  through  the  remainder  of 
their  lives  from  that  continual  distress  in  the  sto- 
mach which  is  known  as  heartburn,  although  they 
had  long  previously  abandoned  the  indulgence  which 
gave  rise  to  it. 


PART  VIII. 


JnCENTIYES    to  ^EALTHj 


EANS    OF  JIeLIEF    IN   ^ASES  OF  y^CCIDENT, 


CHAPTER  1. 


BATHING  AND  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SKIN. 

The  external  application  of  fluids  rgost  grateful  to  man  when  fa- 
tigued— Batliing  employed  as  a  curative  means — Was  a  religious 
observance  among  the  ancients — Scriptural  history  of  bathing — 
The  Greeks  indebted  to  the  Egyptians  for  its  knowledge — Cruel 
practice  of  the  Spartans — Excessive  cold  water  injurious — Judg- 
ment required  in  bathing — Sedative  effects  of  cold  water  danger- 
ous to  some  constitutions — Structure  and  organization  of  the  skin 
— How  it  is  acted  upon  by  cold  water — Relief  afforded  by  the  cold 
bath  in  casfs  of  fever  and  inflammation — When  the  application  of 
iced  water  is  beneficial — The  warm  bath,  and  its  remedial  quali- 
ties— The  hot  bath  and  its  stimulating  efiects — Is  dangerous  to 
persons  of  full  habit — Precautionary  measures — How  to  prepare 
a  vapor-bath — Application  of  the  fumes  of  alcohol  or  the  spirit 
vapor-bath — The  foot-bath  and  local  applications. 


EOBABLY  Hotliing  is  more  grateful  to  man, 


JL  when  fatigued  and  oppressed  by  lieat,  than 
bathing  in  a  cool  stream  of  water.  And  thus  the 
bath  has  been  resorted  to  not  alone  as  a  luxury  when 
well,  but  as  a  cnrative  means  when  sick — an  idea  in- 
duced from  the  relief  it  affords  a  person  when  he  is 
tired  and  feverish  from  excessive  toil.  The  flowing 
stream  being  one  of  nature's  free  provisions,  and  in 
primitive  times  the  most  convenient  arrangement  for 
cleansing  and  purifying  the  person,  man  in  every  stage 
of  society  has  availed  himself  of  the  luxurious  privi- 


328 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


lege  it  presented,  wliile  at  the  same  time  lie  Las  enjoyed 
the  ricli  advantage  of  inhaling  the  cool  air  of  the  shad- 
ed forest  through  which  it  passed.  And  as  whatever 
affords  Iiim  the  greatest  solace  and  adds  most  to  his 
comfort  tends  to  excite  his  religious  veneration,  so 
bathing  and  visiting  the  sliaded  forest  have  been  en- 
joined as  religious  observances.  The  conviction  innate 
in  man  of  the  virtue  of  purification,  and  of  the  essen- 
tiality of  repentance — for  which  latter  the  silent  forest 
offers  a  fitting  place  for^olemnity  of  thought  as  to  his 
sinful  nature — would  naturally  suggest  these  observan- 
ces as  indispensable  to  obtain  the  forgiveness  of  an 
offended  Deity.  And  that  they  were  practiced  in  the 
primitive  ages  no  doubt  can  be  entertained,  for  we 
read  that,  before  the  days  of  Moses,  bathing  was  resort- 
ed to,  and  was  considered  typical  of  moral  purity. 
Jacob  commanded  his  family  to  purify  themselves  and 
change  their  garments  before  they  went  to  Betliel  to 
sacrifice.  In  the  book  of  Job  we  read  of  a  similar  pu- 
rification by  snow-water,  wln'ch  proves  that  cold  bath- 
ing is  of  very  early  date.  The  Egyptian  priests  on 
the  occasion  of  extraordinary  sacrifices  washed  their 
bodies  three  times  a  day.  The  Jewish  priests  ,  also 
washed  their  bodies  before  ofiiciating  in  the  temple  ; 
and  the  proselytes  from  heathen  parents  were  immers- 
ed to  their  necks  in  the  river,  and  were  compelled  to 
remain  there  until  an  exposition  of  some  of  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  law  was  made  by  the  priest. 

The  Greeks  were  indebted  to  the  Egyptians  for 
their  knowledge  of  bathing,  as  a  part  of  the  medical 
art,  and  very  probably  as  a  religious  observance. 
These  people,  in  common  with  the  Jews,  practiced 


BATHIXG  AND  THE  FUNCTIOXS  OF  THE  SKIN.  329 


three  kinds  of  puriiication — by  bathing,  immersing,^  or 
dipping,  by  washing  of  hands  and  feet,  and  by  asper- 
sion or  sprinkling."^  Extremes  being  ever  the  tenden- 
cy of  man,  he  is  tempted  to  accomplish  the  acme  of 
perfection  without  considering  the  necessity  of  grada- 
tion, a  compulsory  restraint  enjoined  by  nature ;  and  so 
he  will  suffer  popular  practice  to  usurp  the  place  of  his 
better  judgment,  and  to  lead  him  into  tlie  greatest 
extremes.  The  Spartans  plunged  their  new-born  in- 
fants into  cold  springs,  and  boasted  of  the  robust  con- 
stitutions of  those  that  grew  up.  The  practice  could 
not  be  otherwise  than  successful  in  relieving  them  of 
feeble  children,  for  only  the  robust  could  withstand  the 
ordeal ;  and  thus  a  sacrifice  was  made  of  all  the  en- 
feebled. This  cruel  infliction  was  a  submission  to 
public  opinion  and  pride.  Many  of  those  who  were 
destroyed  by  the  sudden  violence  would,  in  the  course 
of  time,  by  gradual  inurement,  have  rivaled  in  health 
those  who  withstooi^  the  severe  shock  ;  for  the  feeble 
inftxnt,  with  proper  care,  often  lives  to  enjoy  a  vigor- 
ous manhod  and  a  ripe  old  age. 

An  ordinary  capability,  by  being  excessively  forced 
to  meet  some  demand  or  to  resist  some  extraordinary 
influence,  is  often  thereby  so  impaired  as  to  place  the 
recuperative  powers  beyond  the  ability  to  resuscitate, 
and  thus  a  check  is  given  to  the  progressive  vigor  of 
the  system.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  healthy  and  well- 
developed  infants  to  disappoint  expectation  in  adoles- 
cent age  by  becoming  feeble,  and  exhibiting  indica- 
tions of  disease  and  deformity.  It  is,  therefore,  most 
prudent  for  parents  to  observe  care,  and  to  exercise 
*  Bell  on  Bathing. 


330 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


judgment  in  the  inurement  of  their  offspring  to  such 
hardy  treatment  as  cold  bathing.  Some  children  will 
bear  it  admirably,  while  there  are  tliose  whom,  w^ith 
caa'eful  gradation  of  treatment,  it  will  much  improve ; 
but  still  there  are  others  who  will  sink  under  its  enforce- 
ment, and  we  must  certainly  consider  it  a  cruelty  to 
sacrifice  these  to  the  dictation  of  public  opinion. 

These  remarks  apply  not  only  to  children,  but  to 
adults  of  delicate  constitution.  Many  a  valuable  life 
has  been  sacrificed  to  popular  practices,  urged  by  un- 
reflecting friends,  who  have  perhaps  never  given 
it  a  thought  that,  though  all  mankind  are  endowed 
with  vital  resistance  and  with  ability  to  accumulate 
resisting  power,  yet  some  possess  it  to  a  far  less  extent 
than  others.  The  responsibility  of  giving  advice  in 
such  matters  should  alone  be  assumed  by  tliose  who 
are  most  familiar  with  the  constitution  of  an  indivi- 
dual, and  who  are  capable  of  making  proper  deductions 
from  his  or  her  past  life ;  and  none  are  more  capable 
of  giving  proper  advice  than  an  observing,  long-con- 
tinued medical  attendant,  and  the  oldest,  most  inte- 
rested, and  most  reliable  member  of  the  family.  Then 
any  experiment  should  be  carefully  made,  and  the 
perseverance  in  it  limited  according  to  the  improve- 
ment, and  nevjer  continued  where  actual  benefit  is  not 
derived  w^ithin  a  reasonable  time ;  but  above  all,  it 
should  be  introduced  gradually,  if  proper  regard  is 
had  for  the  life  of  the  individual  or  for  his  or  her  fu- 
ture health. 

Persons  may  die  from  the  sudden  sedative  effect  of 
cold  water  upon  so  extensive  a  surface  as  that  of  the 
whole  body.    It  may  so  paralyze  the  nerves  as  to 


BATHING  AND  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SKIN.  331 


greatly  impair  their  vital  energy,  and  tlius  it  may 
be  impossible  for  the  blood  to  return  to  the  super- 
ficial blood-vessels;  or  it  may  induce  a  sudden  revul- 
sion of  blood  from  the  surface  to  the  large  blood-ves- 
sels about  the  vital  organs,  and  a  consequent  disten- 
tion of  those  organs,  which  may  become  permanent, 
and  cause  the  life  of  the  individual  to  be  ever  after 
seriously  imperiled  by  rendering  him  liable  to  heart- 
disease  and  congestion  of  various  organs. 

In  order  to  enable  the  reader  to  comprehend  more 
clearly  the  effects  of  bathing,  we  will  here  present  a 
description  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  skin. 
We  intentionally  omitted  this  in  a  previous  chapter, 
as  we  preferred  to  treat  of  the  two  subjects  in  conjunc- 
tion, so  that  they  might  be  rendered  more  compre- 
hensible. 

The  ski7i  covering  the  body  of  an  ordinary-sized 
man  has  a  superficies  of  about  fifteen  square  feet.  It 
is  composed  of  three  lamince  or  layers.  The  outer 
one,  called  the  cuticle  or  epidermis^  is  readily  separated 
from  the  middle  layer  by  chafing  or  blistering,  and 
has  not  any  sensibility ;  it  is  seemingly  a  mere  outer 
protection  to  more  sensitive  parts.  The  next  layer  is 
of  a  soft,  porous  consistency,  presenting  a  secreting 
surface,  very  perceptible  when  the  outer  layer  is  re- 
moved, and  is  exceedingly  sensitive.  This  layer,  call- 
ed rete  mucosum^  consists  of  a  profusiqii  of  small  vessels 
conveying  blood  and  lymph,  and  of  a  fine  net-work  of 
nerves;  and  it  presents  on  its  surface  the  color  of  the 
individual,  which  is  perceived  through  the  epidermis 
or  scarf  skin.  The  inner  layer  is  of  a  dense,  resisting 
character,  and  is  called  the  true  skin  oy  cJiorion.  The 


332 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


outer  layer  permits  the  escape  of  perspirable  matter 
and  certain  gases,  wliicli  are  given  out  from  the 
terminations  of  the  small  vessels  referred  to ;  but  at 
tlie  same  time  it  protects  and  to  a  certain  degree  pre- 
vents tlie  introduction  of  mjurious  substances.  This 
protecting  property  is  very  apparent  when  the  outer 
layer  is  removed,  as  then  poisonous  substances  are 
most  readily  taken  into  the  system  and  their  effects 
manifested. 

This  very  extensive  organ  performs  other  most  im- 
portant functions  besides  those  of  secreting  insensible 
and  sensible  perspiration  and  eliminating  gases.  It 
also  absorbs  oxygen  and  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  performs  functions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
the  lungs  in  respiration  ;  and  this  is  especially  the  case 
in  some  of  the  lower  orders  of  animals,  such  as  the  frog, 
wdiose  skin  is  of  more  vital  importance  in  sustaining 
life  than  the  lungs. 

The  skin  is  continued  internally,  and,  by  a  slightly 
graduated  modification,  forms  the  lining  membranes 
of  the-  nose,  mouth,  and  internal  organs  ;  hence  the 
sympathy  that  exists  between  those  membranes  and 
the  external  skin.  If  the  secreting  function  of  the 
latter  is  impaired  by  constriction  or  enfeebled  by  ex- 
cessive evaporation,  that  is,  by  what  we  term  taking 
cold,"  the  internal  mucous  secretions,  as,  for  instance, 
those  of  the  nose  and  bronchia  from  the  lungs,  are  in- 
creased, and  diarrhea  not  unfrequently  supervenes. 
By  exciting  the  skin  into  its  wonted  action,  and  indu- 
cing a  free  perspiration,  the  internal  activity  is  arrested, 
and  in  mild  cases  an  equilibrium  is  established.  But 
if  an  excessive  irritability,  amounting  to  congestion,  is 


VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  SKIN  GREATLY  MAGNIFIED. 


1.  The  hairs  passing  up  from  their 

bulbs. 

2.  The  eindermis^  or  scarf-skin,  hav- 

ing the  appearance  of  scales  placed 
one  over  the  other. 

3.  The  dermis,  or  true  skin.   9.  The 

rete  mucosum^  forming  the  upper 
surface  of  the  derma.  It  is  this 
layer  that  contains  the  coloring 
pigment  of  the  skin,  as  the  black 
color  of  the  negro. 

4.  The  subcutaneous  cellnlar  tissue. 

This  contains  the  fat-cells.^  sioeat^ 


glands,  and  ducts  extending  to  the 
epidermis. 

5.  The  fat-cells. 

6.  The  aweat-glands. 

7,  7.  The  arteries,  giving  branches  to . 
glands,  all  parts  of  the  skin,  and 
hair-bulbs. 

8.  The  sebaceous  glands  of  the  hair. 

9.  The  rete  mucosum. 

10.  fibrous  filaments  "^^xs^^^m^  the 
skin. 

11.  The  hair  bulb. 


BATHIXG  AXD  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SKIN.  333 

established,  tlien  irritabiHty  is  kept  up  by  the  pressure 
of  the  engorged  blood-vessels,  and  much  excitement  of 
the  nerves  is  produced  ;  and  this  excitement  requires 
for  its  relief  a  more  decided  medication,  and  if  it  is 
not  relieved,  disorganization  ensues.  The  nerves,  too, 
play  an  important  part,  more  especially  in  fever,  when 
they  are  morbidly  excited,  and  constrict  the  secrethig 
vessels  both  internally  and  externally.  If  the  irrita- 
bility is  allayed,  perspiration,  accompanied  by  a  move- 
ment of  the  bowels,  ensues,  and  the  patient  obtains 
relief ;  but  as  this  object  is  not  always  readily  obtain- 
ed, experience  and  skill  are  required  to  accomplish  it. 

From  this  we  learn  that  it  is  important  to  maintain 
the  healthy  functions  of  the  skin,  and  that  any  extra- 
ordinary violence  which  produces  a  sudden  interference 
with  the  action  of  those  functions  tends  to  derange  the 
whole  system  ;  and  this  derangement  is  in  exact  propor- 
tion to  the  deficiency  of  resistant  power  in  the  skin. 
From  its  exposed  surface,  this  power  is,  in  the  adult, 
greater  in  that  organ  than  in  any  other  of  the  animal 
economy,  but  such  is  not  the  case  in  the  new-born  in- 
fiint.  It  can  be  accumulated  by  gradual  invitation, 
where  there  is  sufficient  natural  stamina  to  affijrd  it; 
but  the  amount  of  such  stamina  is  limited  in  each 
person  to  his  actual  physical  strength. 

With  the  delicate  an  indiscriminate  use  of  the  cold 
'hath  and  extraordinary  exposure  to  cold,  damp  air  are 
most  common  causes  of  incurable  diseases.  The  appli- 
cation of  cold  water  to  the  skin  acts  :  First^  as  a  repel- 
lant,  by  constricting  the  secreting  vessels  and  arresting 
nervous  energy,  and,  as  a  consequent,  numbness  fol- 
lows, when  the  prick  of  a  pin  is  scarcely  felt ;  and,  if  it 


334 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


is  continued  long,  first  tlie  fingers,  and  then  the  limbs, 
fail  to  move  with  freedom.  And,  secondly^  it  causes 
the  natural  lieat  of  the  body  to  be  conducted  off  so  ra- 
pidly as  to  deprive  the  internal  parts  of  their  wonted 
heat — 98^  of  Faln-enheit.  Under  such  circumstances, 
experienced  observers  have  remarked  tlie  circulation  to 
decrease  from  ten  to  fifteen  beats  per  minute,  tlius  to 
a  considerable  extent  dhninishing  the  ability  to  fur- 
nish heat.  In  fact,  so  great  is  the  benumbing  effect 
upon  the  nervous  system  that,  even  after  leaving  the 
bath,  the  temperature  of  the  body  will  remain  for  a 
considerable  time  below  the  natural  level.  Such  has 
been  the  experience  of  Athell,  Macard,  Buchan", 
and  Dr.  Curry,  all  writers  upon  the  use  of  baths. 
The  effect  of  an  impression  like  this  upon  a  delicate, 
nervous  person  must  certainly  be  most  serious,  and 
especially  upon  one  whose  circulation  is  feeble.  For 
a  considerable  length  of  time  after  bathing,  persons  of 
this  class  usually  experience  cold,  shivering  languor, 
dullness  of  the  senses,  disinclination  to  thought  and 
motion,  and  pains  in  the  head  and  joints,  all  of  which 
are  accompanied  by  a  feeble  pulse ;  while  some  per- 
sons have  a  gradual  diminution  of  nervous  power 
resulting  in  paralysis. 

The  cold  hath  affords  much  relief  in  cases  of  fever, 
and,  when  applied  locally,  in  some  instances  of  local 
inflammation.  It  may  also  be  of  service  to  persons 
of  robust  constitution  who  do  not  labor  sufficiently  to 
expend  their  natural  quantum  of  excitability,  which 
renders  them  dull  and  sluggish,  and  at  times  sul)jects 
them  to  headaches  and  various  ills  of  oppression,  and 
makes  tliem  a])pcar  to  the  superficial  obsei'ver  like 


BATHING  AND  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SKIN.  335 


those  who  are  afflicted  with  feeble  constitutions.  In 
such  cases  tlie  cold  bath,  if  persevered  in  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  acts  as  a  sedative,  and  not  only 
abstracts  tlie  superabundant  heat,  but  lessens  the  dis- 
position to  its  accumulation.  Hard  labor  would  ac- 
complish similar  good  results. 

In  cases  of  extraordinary  excitement  of  the  skin, 
amounting  to  actual  irritation,  caused  by  excessive 
heat — such,  for  instance,  as  results  from  taking  very 
hot  baths  and  having  the  surface  irritated  by  stiif 
brushes  or  switching — water  at  the  temperature  of 
snow^  acts  as  a  soothing  sedative,  and  brings  the  sys- 
tem into  a  state  of  equilibrium,  though  at  the  time 
it  is  in  one  of  actual  exhaustion,  inducing  an  inclina- 
tion for  rest.  And  thus  it  is  that  a  disposition  to  qnie- 
tude  and  apparent  comfort  follows  the  taking  of  one  of 
the  "  Russian  baths,"  which  sensation  is  very  analogous 
to  the  relief  afforded  to  a  person  laboring  under  fever 
by  the  skillful  application  of  cold  water  externally  and 
internally.  In  both  instances  he  is  inclined  to  sleep, 
for  in  neither  does  he  obtain  either  strength  or  vital 
energy.  This  fact  teaches  ns  that  cold  baths  are  actu- 
ally injurious  to  tlie  delicate  young,  to  tlie  enfeebled 
adult,  and  to  the  aged. 

Moderately  cool  bathing^  gradually  reduced  in  tem- 
perature, may  in  some  instances  induce  an  abilit}^  in 
the  system  to  resist  the  influence  of  cold;  but  even 
this  practice  must  be  carefully  tested,  for,  if  an  indi- 
vidual has  not  the  stamina  to  accumulate  vital  energy, 
he  Avill  be  seriously  injured  by  it.  If  the  person  is 
young  and  the  practice  is  continued,  all  the  indica- 
tions of  scrofula  will  supervene ;  and  if  advanced  in 


330 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


age,  then  paralysis  will  be  induced.  These  derange- 
ments may  not  follow  immediately,  but  the  impres- 
sion made  will  result  in  them. 

Iced  water  api:>lied  locally,  or  as  a  general  bath, 
affords  most  decided  relief  in  cases  of  excessive  ner- 
vous excitement.  We  have  already  remarked  that 
persons  prostrated  by  alcoholic  intoxication  have  been 
relieved  by  pouring  cold  water  on  their  heads ;  and 
that  in  cases  of  delirinm  tremens  relief  has  been  ob- 
tained by  immersion  in  ice-water,  by  which  sleep  has 
been  induced,  even  after  opium  had  failed  to  quiet,  so 
powerful  is  the  effect  of  cold  water  as  a  sedative. 

Bathing  in  w\ater  at  the  temperature  of  98°  has  the 
least  possible  tendency  to  injure,  and  a  direct  ten- 
dency to  benefit  both  young  and  old,  especially  when 
soap  is  nsed,  for  then  not  only  the  exposed  surfaces, 
bnt  the  whole  body,  is  cleansed.  Thereby  a  most 
favorable  impression  is  made  upon  the  sentient  nerves 
and  secreting  vessels ;  and  the  obstructing  secretions 
are  softened  and  removed,  wdiich  is  as  essential  to  the 
enjoyment  of  perfect  health  as  is  the  regulating  of  the 
bowels  to  stated  periods,  not  exceeding  twenty-four 
hours'  interval.  In  order  to  maintain  such  health, 
w^asliing  the  surface  of  the  entire  body  is  not  required 
so  often  as  washing  the  exposed  parts,  but  it  should 
be  practiced  quite  frequently,  and  more  especially  by 
persons  having  oleaginons  secretions,  which  we  have 
heretofore  stated  are  very  apparent  npon  their  cloth- 
ing. A  bath  at  the  temperature  just  mentioned  is 
usnally  denominated  the  warm  or  tepid  hath:  the 
temperature,  however,  may  be  varied  from  Y5°  to  98"^, 
as  may  be  most  congenial  to  the  feelings  of  the  per- 


BATHIN(i  AND  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SKIN.  337 


son.  In  fact,  it  can  be  so  ni edified  as  to  render  tlie 
warm  bath  one  of  tlie  very  best  remedies  for  nervous 
irritability^,  from  whatever  cause  it  arises,  for  impaired 
health,  or  for  fatigue;  and  as  illustrative  of  the  latter 
we  may  mention  tlie  wayworn  traveler,  to  whom  it 
is  one  of  the  greatest  luxuries,  sootliing  his  nervous 
system,  and  removing  from  his  skin  tlie  excessive 
o.ccumulation  of  dust  and  of  cutaneous  secretions  pro- 
duced by  extraordinary  exertion,  both  of  which  act  as 
irritants.  Its  sedative  influence  in  allaying  morbid 
irritability  predisposes  to  a  quiet  sleep,  during  which 
the  internal  powders  prepare  and  accumulate  a  dis- 
posable force  for  continued  exertion.  This  is  the 
proper  bath  for  the  feeble  and  delicate,  if  it  is  not 
immoderately  indulged  in.  If  feverish  or  much  ex- 
cited, a  longer  continuance  in  the  bath  than  would  be 
ordinarily  advisable  may.be  advantageous.  But  this 
greatly  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  person,  as 
its  sedative  eifect  upon  the  nervous  system  will  lessen 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  enfeeble  the  physical 
powers;  hence  it  is  said,  and  truly  so,  that  too  fre- 
quent bathing  or  washing  of  delicate  babes  is  inju- 
rious, as  it  lessens  the  excitement  necessary  for  the 
attainment  of  growth  and  vigor. 

The  hot  hath  is  from  100"^  to  112°,  and  differs  essen- 
tially from  the  warm  or  tepid  bath,  as  it  is  a  stimu- 
lant, and  ought  only  to  be  used  as  such.  While  the 
latter  soothes  and  disposes  to  mental  and  corporeal 
quietude,  the  former  communicates  heat  to  the  body, 
and  excites  the  nerves  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  exceedingly  dangerous  to 
persons  of  full  habit.    The  condition  of  such  persons 


838 


INCENTIVKS  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


when  under  its  influence  is:  Swelling  of  the  fingers 
so  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  removing  the  rings, 
congestion  of  the  blood-vessels  about  the  head,  quick- 
ening of  the  pulse  which  becomes  full,  and  rapid  and 
laborious  respiration  which  are  followed  by  palpita- 
tion of  the  heart,  wdiile  Qven  apoplexy  has  been  known 
to  ensue.  These  effects  are  produced  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  duration  of  immersion,  and  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bath. 

A  valuable  precautionary  measure,  to  avert  the 
determination  of  excitement  to  the  brain  and  nerves 
when  taking  a  hot  bath,  is  the  application  to  the  head 
of  a  sponge  charged  with  iced  water,  which  should  be 
renewed  and  continued  as  long  as  the  person  is  in  the 
bath.  The  same  practice  should  also  be  observed  by 
persons  under  the  influence  of  hot  vapor  from  water, 
or  of  the  fumes  of  burning  alcohol,  as  they  tend  equal- 
ly with  the  hot  bath  to  produce  extraordinary  excite- 
ment, first,  of  the  superficies  of  the  body,  and,  lastly, 
of  the  vital  centres.  When  any  of  these  agencies  are 
resorted  to  as  a  means  of  counteracting  internal  irri- 
tation, and  of  establishing  a  healthy  action  in  the 
skin,  and  when  they  are  skillfully  applied,  they  are 
most  salutary  remedies. 

The  vapor  of  hot  water,  or  the  vapor-hath^  is  most 
readily  applied  in  the  following  manner :  Take  a 
blanket,  gather  up  one  of  the  narrow  sides,  and  tie 
round  it  firmly  a  strong  cord;  after  which,  place 
within  the  end  so  tied,  and  close  up  to  the  tie,  a  hoop 
from  a  flour-barrel,  and,  so  as  to  keep  it  in  its  place, 
fasten  it  by  means  of  strips  of  cloth  passed  round  the 
rim  and  pinned  to  the  blanket.    When  raised  up,  this 


BATHING  AND  THE  FUNCIIONS  OF  THE  SKIN.  339 


will  form  the  top  of  a  tent,  to  wliieli  tlie  rest  of  the 
blanket  will  supply  tbe  sides;  and  this  tent  may  be 
easily  suspended  by  attaching  the  top  to  one  end  of  a 
strong  cane,  the  other  end  being  passed  over  the  top 
of  a  door,  partially  open,  and  under  the  door  frame. 
If  within  this  tent  is  placed  a  vessel  containing  about 
two  gallons  of  hot  water,  into  which  a  few  hot  bricks 
are  from  time  to  time  plunged,  a  sufficient  amount  of 
vapor  will  be  generated  and  kept  up  to  aftbrd  a  very 
decided  vapor-bath  for  a  person  either  standing  or 
sitting  within  the  tent. 

The  spirit-vapor  hath^  composed  of  the  fumes  of 
alcohol  or  ordinary  spirits  of  good  strength,  may  be 
applied  as  follows :  Pin  one  extremity  of  a  blanket 
about  the  neck  of  a  person,  and  then  seait  him  on  an 
open-bottomed  chair,  after  which  spread  the  blanket 
over  both  the  person  and  the  chair,  with  the  open  side 
to  the  back  ;  next  put  under  the  chair  a  saucer  placed 
on  an  ordinary  porcelain  plate,  and  containing  about 
half  a  gill  of  alcohol,  and  then  ignite  the  spirits  with 
a  lighted  match.  This  vapor  may  also  be  conveyed 
into  the  bed  of  a  sick  person  by  means  of  a  curved  tin 
tube  with  a  funnel-shaped  end,  the  large  end  being 
placed  over  the  alcohol,  and  the  bedclothes  being 
sufficiently  elevated  by  rolled  blankets  placed  a  short 
distance  from  each  side  of  the  patient.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  spirit-vapor  produces  a  most  decided  stim- 
ulant effect  upon  the  skin,  and  is  most  valuable,  as 
it  excites  and  maintains  the  wonted  circulation  of 
the  blood  in  that  organ,  and  restores  to  it  its  secreting 
functions,  which  are  always  deficient  when  internal 
irritation  exists,  let  it  be  of  the  stomach,  the  bowels^ 


340 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


or  the  lungs.  It  is  also  a  valuable  remedy  in  chronic 
rheumatism,  and  neuralgic  aftections,  hut  more  espe- 
cially in  chronic  derangement  of  the  bowels,  whether 
of  children,  adults,  or  aged  persons. 

Local  baths  are  often  of  great  service,  especially 
the  foot-iath^  or  jpediluviu7)i.  In  cases  of  excessive 
excitement  about  the  head,  throat,  or  chest,  a  very  hot 
foot-bath  is  a  valuable  means  of  relief,  and  much  ad- 
vantage is  obtained  by  immersing  the  hands  at  the 
same  time.  Apoplectic  seizures  have  been 'relieved 
by  the  application  of  very  hot  water  to  the  feet  and 
hands,  and  at  the  same  time  of  pounded  ice  in  a  blad- 
der to  the  head.  Cloths  steeped  in  cold  w^ater  and 
applied  to  inflamed  parts,  and  reapplied  at  frequent 
intervals  or  kept  wet,  is  one  of  the  very  best  reme- 
dies in  cases  of  local  inflammation.  The  safest  prac- 
tice, however,  with  persons  unaccustomed  to  bathing, 
is  to  use  water  at  a  temperature  of  about  70°. 


CHAPTER  II. 


CLOTHING  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD. 

Clothing"  contributes  to  health — The  evils  attendant  on  being 
insufficiently  clad —Neatness  in  dress  commands  respect — Chil- 
dren sacrificed  by  fashionable  clothing — Drafts  in  street  cars  a 
]3roliiic  cause  of  death — Concentrated  drafts  of  air  decidedly  in- 
jurious— Effects  of  cold  on  the  young  and  the  aged — Cold  air 
acts  upon  the  system  like  cold  water — A  torpid  skin  the  result 
of  sedentary  habits — Exercise,  not  clothing,  the  proper  remedy  — 
Clothing  should  be  worn  in  accordance  with  surrounding  cir- 
cumstances— The  skin  best  protected  by  flannel — How  children 
should  be  dressed  by  day  and  night — Flannel  retains  heat,  but 
linen  absorbs  it — Cold  feet  must  not  be  permitted — How  they 
can  be  prevented — Sacrifice  of  women  and  children  by  wearing 
thin  shoes  and  stockings — Exposure  of  the  limbs  of  children 
tends  to  paralysis — Treatment  of  paralyzed  parts — Waistbands 
and  high-laced  boots  injurious  to  children — The  necessity  for  fre- 
quently changing  underclothing — Persons  who  should  be  care- 
fully guarded  against  cold. 

CLOTHING  contributes  largely  to  the  health  of 
man;  and  its  imprudent  use  has  been  as  much 
the  cause  of  both  physical  and  mental  suffering  as  any 
other  evil  to  which  he  is  subject.  Insufficient  clothing 
has  led  to  many  persons  for  years  lingering  out  a  life 
of  pain — persons  who  could  not  excuse  themselves  for 
their  folly  on  tlie  score  of  poverty,  but  wlio  w^ere  in- 
duced by  a  false  pride  to  conform  to  the  rules  of  some 
frivolous  prevailing  fashion,  even  against  the  wishes 


342 


INCENTIVES  TO  IIExVLTH,  ETC. 


and  advice  of  tLeir  best  friends.  And  tliere  are  many 
more  who  have  had  to  experience  the  mental  anguish 
attendant  upon  the  loss  of  a  fovorite  child  of  bril- 
liant attainments,  or  upon  the  decease  of  some  valued 
friend  who  has  committed  this  species  of  self-immo- 
lation. 

Clotlies,  when  properly  devised,  not  only  contri- 
bute to  personal  comfort,  but  are  conducive  to  liealth 
and  longevity.  Their  conformation  should  be  one  of 
the  studies  of  mankind,  for  the  style  of  dress  is  often 
taken  as  an  index  to  the  character  of  the  individual. 
Men  and  women  wdio  are  tastefully  attired  invariably 
command  respect,  even  tliougli  the  materials  of  which 
their  habiliments  are  composed  are  of  the  most  ordinary 
quality.  Indeed,  it  is  often  the  most  costly  material 
that  is  the  most  unfavorably  fashioned,  and  contributes 
the  least  either  to  personal  appearance  or  to  personal 
comfort. 

Children  are  constantly  being  sacrificed,  by  their 
parents,  in  conformity  to  the  fashion  of  the  day,  caus- 
ing the  most  sensitive  parts  of  their  bodies  to  be  ex- 
posed, and,  while  so  meagrely  clad,  submitting  them 
to  most  unfavorable  circumistances ;  as,  for  instance, 
keeping  them  in  overheated  rooms,  and  then  permit- 
ting them  to  encounter  sudden  drafts  of  air  by  run- 
ning out  into  the  hall,  especially  when  the  outer  doors 
are  thrown  open.  Another  grave  error  is  that  of  per- 
sisting in  confining  them  to  the  house,  from  the  fear 
that  they  will  catch  cold  if  allowed  to  go  out ;  instead 
of  which  they  ought  to  be  properly  clothed  and  exposed 
to  the  open  air  every  favorable  day.  If  thus  clothed 
and  exposed,  and  sudden  drafts  of  air  arc  avoided. 


CLOTHING  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD. 


343 


children  of  moderately  good  constitutions  will  not  "be 
attacked  with  croup  and  inflannnation  of  the  lungs, 
and,  all  other  circumstances  being  equal,  will  enjoy 
good  health. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  prolific  causes  of  death  to 
children  arises  from  taking  them  out  of  warm  houses, 
on  mild  days  during  the  cool  season,  and  almost  im- 
mediately taking  them  into  the  city  railroad  cars. 
The  doors  at  the  ends  of  these  cars  are,  on  snch  days, 
usually  open;  if  not,  it  is  highW  probable  that  some 
mother  of  a  family  of  children,  wrapped  up  in  her  furs, 
and  very  warm  from  active  walking  for  a  few  blocks, 
wnll  enter  one  of  them  and  order  the  windows  down, 
little  suspecting  that  for  her  own  gratification  she 
is  endangering  the  lives  of  the  children,  and  adults 
with  delicate  lungs,  who  may  be  her  fellows-passengers. 
This  is  a  most  common  occurrence.  Twenty  minutes' 
ride  under  one  or  other  of  these  circumstances  has 
caused  the  death  of  many  an  infant  and  adult,  while 
an  hour's  walk  w^ould  have  improved  their  health. 
The  ride  w^ould  not  be  injurious  if  the  front-door  and 
the  side-windows  of  the  car  were  kept  closed.  The  ven- 
tilators on  the  roof  and  the  after-door  are  all  that  it 
is  safe  to  leave  open  on  a  damp,  chilly  day.  Even  on 
the  hottest  day  in  summer,  it  is  decidedly  injurious  to 
have  merely  both  doors  or  a  front-window  and  the 
rear-door  open,  thereby  creating  a  draft,  and  only  safe 
when  all  the  side-windows  as  well  as  the  doors  of  a  car 
are  open.  In  a  word,  it  is  a  concentrated  draft  of  air 
that  passengers  should  guard  against.  When  a  person 
is  in  a  quiescent  condition,  such  a  draft  deprives  the 
system  of  its  vital  enei'gies  too  rapidly,  and  in  direct 


344 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


proportion  to  liis  or  her  want  of  vigor.  The  most 
dehcate  person  is  not  injured  by  walking  in  the  open 
air,  even  though  it  may  travel  with  as  much  and  even 
greater  velocity  than  a  draft  would  course  through 
such  a  confined  place  as  a  passage-way,  or  througli  an 
open  window ;  for  tlie  exercise  of  walking  tends  to 
the  accumulation  of  energy  equal  to  the  expenditure. 
Five  minutes'  exposure,  while  a  person  is  in  a  station- 
ary position,  to  a  concentrated  draft  of  air  at  a  tempe- 
rature of  seventy  degrees,  is  more  injurious  than  an 
hour's  exposure  wliile  walking  in  the  open  air  at  a 
temperature  of  forty  degrees;  while  in  either  case  the 
influence  of  the  air  would  be  modifled  by  clothing  and 
by  the  vigor  and  age  of  the  individual. 

It  is  a  w^ell-establislied  fact  that  the  young  and  the 
old  are  least  able  to  resist  the  depressing  influence  of 
cold,  and  that  the  former  are  in  general  the  least 
guarded  against  it.  Dr.  W,  F.  Edwards,  in  treating 
on  the  infl-uence  of  physical  agents  on  the  animal 
economy,  has  demonstrated  by  actual  investigation 
that  the  young  have  at  birth  the  least  power  of  pro- 
ducing heat,  and  that  this  ability  to  generate  heat  gra- 
dnall}'^  increases,  and  in  direct  ratio  of  vigor,  to  adult 
age.  He  has  also  shown  that  heat  parts  fi'om  chil- 
dren much  more  readily  than  from  adults.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  protecting  as  much  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  of  the  child  as  it  is  possible,  and  of 
modifying  the  clothing  in  accordance  with  the  tem- 
perature and  the  exposure. 

An  excess  of  clothing  during  confinement  in  warm, 
close  rooms  has  a  direct  tendency  to  enfeeble  both 
young  and  old,  as  the  skin  thereby  becomes  exceed- 


CLOTHING  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD. 


345 


irigly  sensitive  to  cold,  fi'om  wliicli  it  ought  to  be  care- 
fully protected,  especially  the  surface  of  the  extremi- 
ties of  tlie  body.  But  this  is  not  the  only  evil  that 
arises  from  sucli  a  debilitating  practice.  In  children 
an  excessive  perspiration  is  induced  at  the  expense  of 
the  normal  vigorous  development  of  the  internal  orga- 
nization, tending  to  morbid  derangement,  which  is  very 
analogous  to  scrofula,  and  is  most  probably  one  of  the 
primary  causes  of  that  ailment,  as  the  proper  organic 
functions  are  not  sustained  for  want  of  a  sufficiency  of 
oxygenized  air  to  maintain  the  skin  and  lungs  in  their 
w^onted  action. 

The  restless  activity  of  children  greatly  favors  them 
in  the  generation  of  vital  force  to  resist  the  effects  of 
cold.  In  this  they  differ  decidedly  from  old  people, 
who  cannot  exercise  themselves,  and  wdio  conse- 
quently require  at  all  times  much  more  clothing  than 
children.  However,  both  children  and  enfeebled  per- 
sons, when  in  a  quiescent  state,  should  be  properly 
protected  against  cold,  and,  under  all  circumstances, 
should  never  be  allowed  for  any  length  of  time  to  ex- 
perience chilliness  or  suffer  from  cold  feet. 

The  effect  of  cold  air  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
cold  water,  and  is  proportionate  to  the  susceptibility 
of  the  animal  system  from  an  enfeebled  condition  of 
the  skin  or  from  the  general  economy.  Both  repel  the 
circulation  from  the  surface  upon  the  internal  organs, 
and,  if  continued,  disorganize  them  and  eventuate  in 
their  destruction.  A  torpid  skin  is  often  the  result  of 
sedentary  habits ;  torpid  bowels  predispose  to  chilli- 
ness and  cold  feet.  In  such  cases  an  increase  of  cloth- 
ing is  not  the  proper  reuiedy.    Exercise  in  the  open 


346 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


air,  gracliiall}^  introduced,  is  the  wiser  course  to  pui*- 
sue ;  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  overexert  or 
fatigue  the  systeui,  as  a  person  so  situated  will  not 
possess  sufficient  vital  force  to  sustain  an  amount  of 
exertion  that  might  be  considered  even  moderate  exer- 
cise in  anotlier,  differently  conditioned,  though  of  like 
physical  proportions.  The  exercise  must  be  regulated 
by  the  amount  a  person  can  endure  without  feeling 
much  fatigue,  and  it  must  be  determined  by  the  indi- 
vidual that  he  is  wearing  a  sufficiency  of  clothing  to 
keep  himself  comfortable  under  tlie  existing  circum- 
stances. Exercise  is  essentially  necessary  to  excite  the 
whole  organization  into  activity,  so  that  the  wonted 
functions  may  conduce  to  the  proper  sustenance  of  the 
body.  The  Creator  has  so  constituted  man  and  all  the 
living  animals  that,  when  under  the  influence  of  life, 
motion  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  their  respec- 
tive forms  ;  and  if  this  law  of  nature  is  not  obeyed,  suf- 
fering is  the  penalty  for  the  infraction.  Clothing  and 
artificial  heat  will  not  compensate  for  the  neglect  of 
exercise  in  the  open  and  pure  atn.iosphere. 

Health  requires  for  its  maintenance  food  -sufficient 
to  afford  a  certain  amount  of  vigor  to  be  expeiided  in 
exercise,  the  proper  limit  of  which  latter  is  marked  by 
fatigue  ;  and  enough  clothing  to  protect  tlie  system  un- 
der all  circumstances,  and  by  both  day  and  night,  from 
chilliness,  but  not  an  amount  that  will  feel  oppressive 
and  make  a  person  uncomfortably  warm  when  qui- 
escent in  a  temperature  of  sixty  degrees.  Tlie  cloth- 
ing should  also  be  sufficient  to  protect  the  body  from 
cold  when  walking  ])riskly  out  of  doors  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  fifty  degrees.    Wlicn  the  temperature  is  below 


CLOTHING  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD. 


347 


that  point,  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  on  extra  clotli- 
ing,  but  this  should  be  removed  wliile  witliiti  doors 
when  the  temperature  is  sixty-live  degrees  and  over. 

During  the  summer,  tlie  clotliing  should  be  light  and 
not  oppressive,  and  in  our  variable  climate  gauze  flau- 
nel  should  be  worn  next  the  skin.  The  latter  is  es- 
pecially required  by  cliildren,  for,  as  we  have  re- 
marked, young  (children  have  less  vital  force  tlian 
adults  to  resist  the  effects  of  drafts  of  air;  and  this 
shows  the  necessity  of  protecting  all  parts  of  a  child's 
body  and  limbs  in  warm  weather  with  very  light 
fabric;  but  if  this  cannot  be  subuiitted  to  through 
the  day,  the  child  sliould  be  dressed  during  the  night 
in  some  garment  so  contrived  that  it  will  be  impossible 
for  it  to  get  naked.  It  matters  not  how  light  the  ma- 
terial may  be;  if  it  is  strong  enough  to  be  worn,  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  protect  the  surface  from  excessive 
evaporation,  which  renders  the  skin  cold  to  the  toucli, 
and  not  only  impedes  the  circulation  in  that  organ, 
but  predisposes  to  a  derangement  of  the  internal 
organs.  The  same  precaution  sliould  be  observed  by 
delicate  persons  of  all  ages,  and  more  especially  by 
those  living  in  unhealthy  localities  By  the  constant 
wearing  of  flannel,  persons  residing  m  very  unhealthy 
districts,  whose  constitutions  have  been  feeble,  and 
whose  health  has  been  impaired  by  unfavorable  influ- 
ence, have  been  not  (mly  relieved,  but  have  had  their 
constitutions  rendered  comparatively  healthy. 

The  good  qualities  of  flannel  consist  in  its  not  con- 
ducting ofl*the  heat  of  the  body,  and  in  its  protecting 
the  surface  or  skin  from  being  rapidly  deprived  of  it; 
hence  its  beneflcial  effect  upon  aged  and  feeble  per- 


348 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


sons,  who  are  unable  to  generate  heat  rapidly.  Linen 
absorbs  heat,  and  most  decidedly  so  when  moist.  The 
sensation  of  cold  is  very  manifest  in  damp  linen,  but 
not  in  damp  flannel.  Linen  should  not  be  worn  by 
children,  or  by  persons  predisposed  to  diseases  of  the 
lungs  or  bowels,  to  rheumatism,  or  to  catarrhal  affec- 
tions, as  the  mucous  membranes  are  invariably  affected 
by  a  sudden  cliill  upon  tlie  skin,  and  often  by  cold,  damp 
feet,  wdiile  at  the  same  time  the  body  remains  warm. 
Tliis  should  never  be  suffered,  if  it  is  possible  to 
guard  against  it.  In  cold,  damp  w^eather,  boots  or  slioes 
sliould  be  worn  that  are  large  enongh  to  admit  cork 
soles  covered  with  flannel,  which  should  be  tacked  fast 
to  the  inner  soles.  Good  woollen  socks  or  stockings 
sliould  also  be  worn,  and  frequently  clianged,  as  tlie  ex- 
creta of  the  feet,  which  are  very  considerable  in  healthy 
persons,  are  confined  by  means  of  the  leather  and  ab- 
sorbed hy  the  Avoollen.  The  secreting  of  the  feet  is 
one  of  nature's  healthy  processes,  but  it  is  often  im- 
peded and  arrested  by  the  wearing  of  thin,  light  shoes 
and  stockings,  and  by  the  failure  to  take  free  walking 
exercise.  Unhealthy  persons  are  almost  invariably  af- 
flicted wnth  cold  feet,  cold  hands,  and  torpid  skins, 
which  are  curable  in  many  cases  by  judicious  clothing 
and  exercise.  They  would,  however,  establish  a  good 
condition  of  health  if  they  would  induce  an  equilibrium 
of  the  circulation. 

Persons  generally  are  well  aware  of  the  sympathy 
that  exists  between  the  feet  and  the  internal  parts  of 
the  system,  and  will  inform  their  physicians  that  their 
ailments  have  been  caused  by  getting  their  feet  wet, 
most  commonly  by  wilfulness  or  gross  negligence 


CLOTHING  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD. 


349 


wliicli  not  iinfreqiieiitly  costs  them  their  lives.  It  is 
but  seldoLH  tliat  the  most  vigorous  in  health  can  en- 
clnre  wet  feet  witli  impnnity.  Men  usually  guard 
themselves  against  the  danger  by  wearing  water-proof 
boots  or  overshoes;  but  delicate  w^omen  will,  and  chil- 
dren are  permitted  to,  wear  light  cotton  stockings  and 
single-soled  shoes,  and,  in  extremely  wet  weather,  very 
light  india-rubber  overshoes.  This  self-sacrifice  by 
women  of  health  and  life,  and  this  immolation  of  their 
children  to  tlie  god  of  fashion,  is  most  devoutly  prac- 
tised c  And  it  is  but  seldom  that  an  immunity  from 
the  sacrifice  of  health  is  permitted  in  the  dress  of 
either  women  or  children.  This  deplorable  condition 
of  society,  in  the  midst  of  free  and  liberal  education, 
ought  not  to  be  tolerated,  and  would  not  exist  if  our 
most  opulent  families  set  an  example  by  wearing 
ch:>thing  suited  to  the  exigencies  of  the  seasons  and 
to  individual  circumstances.  If  they  would  do  this, 
they  would  fulfil  the  intention  for  which  clothing 
w^as  instituted — a  protection  against  unfavorable  at- 
mospheric influences,  whether  in  or  out  of  doors,  care 
being  taken  while  within  doors  not  to  overclotlie  so  as 
to  enervate  the  system. 

To  adapt  ourselves  to  varied  influences,  special  care 
is  required.  When  the  ordinary  clothing  is  worn  dur- 
ing extraordinary  activity,  such  clothing  should  not  be 
immediately  removed,  but  comfort  should  be  obtained 
by  rest,  avoiding  a  change  of  temperature.  This  is  a 
salutary  precaution,  necessary  to  be  observed  by  the 
most  vigorous  in  liealth.  But  if  under  such  circum- 
stances the  clothing  is  removed  from  the  neck,  the 
upper  portion  of  tlie  chest,  and  the  arms,  a  covering 


350 


IXCEXTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


of  some  tliin  fabric  should  be  substituted,  so  as  to  im- 
pede the  excessive  ev^aporation  that  would  affect  tlie 
superficial  circulation  of  the  blood  in  those  tender 
parts,  which  ought  never  to  be  exposed  in  either 
adults  or  children.  In  children,  such  exposure  has 
been  one  of  the  most  prolific  causes  of  inflamniation 
of  the  throat  and  chest,  while  a  like  exposure  of  their 
legs  and  inefficient  protection  to  their  feet  has  fre- 
quently resulted  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels.  The 
revulsion  of  the  blood  from  tlie  surface  in  many  in- 
stances establislies  a  permanent  irritability  of  the 
nervous  system,  wdiich,  fi'om  slight  exciting  causes, 
terminates  in  the  most  serious  derangements,  among 
wdiich  maybe  classed  paralytic  seizures  resulting  in 
the  deformity  of  one  or  more  of  the  limbs. 

One  of  the  most  favorable  auxiliaries  in  the  cure 
of  these  cases  of  paralysis  is  the  protection  of  the  parts 
affected  from  the  influence  of  cold,  the  temperature  in 
these  parts  being  always  lower  than  that  of  the  unaf- 
fected portions  of  the  body.  Whatever  will  contribute 
to  the  establishing  of  warmth  therein  is  also  beneficial, 
and  so  friction,  manipulation,  warm  covering,  and  mo- 
tion, are  efficacious.  In  such  applications,  however, 
care  must  betaken  to  prevent  the  larger  muscles  (as  is 
their  tendency)  from  contracting  permanently  in  con- 
sequence of  the  w^ant  of  counteracting  force  in  the 
lesser  muscles,  which  is  a  cause  of  deformity  that  can 
only  be  obviated  by  skilfully  constructed  apparatus 
that  will  sustain  the  limb  in  a  normal  position,  and 
will  enable  the  patient  to  use  it  and  thus  obtain  motion. 

But  the  most  expedient  course  to  pursue  is  the  pre- 
caution to  guard  against  the  unfavorable  influences 


CLOTHING  AKD  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD.  351 


that  produce  these  sad  afflictions.  Clothing  should 
be  so  fashioned  as  to  subserve  to  the  convenience  of 
the  varied  movements  of  the  body  witliout  constric- 
tion, and  more  especially  constriction  in  a  narrow 
space,  such  as  is  caused  by  the  wearing  of  a  girdle. 
Tlie  tightened  band  that  is  most  commonly  worn 
about  the  waist  has  produced  many  most  serious  de- 
rangements in  both  males  and  females,  but  more  es- 
pecially the  latter,  and  has  often  subjected  them  to 
painful  inconveniences,  which,  under  varied  circum- 
stances, are  more  or  less  serious.  The  laced  boots 
now  worn  by  children  are  a  prolific  cause  of  weak 
ankles,  as  they  impede  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
by  constricting  and  depriving  the  cords  or.  tendons  of 
the  feet  of  their  wonted  freedom  of  action.  The  re- 
sult is  the  interruption  of  the  growth  and  vigor  of  the 
ankle  and  the  arch  of  the  foot,  which  induces  an  in- 
ward tendency  of  the  ankle  and  a  ^delding  of  the  arch 
of  the  foot.  The  high  heels  on  these  boots  also  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  derangement.  If  the  ankle  re- 
quires support,  it  ought  to  be  applied  by  the  means 
of  vertical  steel  bars,  softly  padded,  and  sustained  by 
encircling  bands  of  metal  that  will  not  compress  the 
ankle,  and  can  be  worn  within  the  shoes.  The  most 
firm  leather  that  can  be  obtained  will,  after  a  few  days' 
wear,  conform  to  the  shape  and  yield  to  the  lateral 
tendency  of  the  ankle,  and  will  often  contribute  to 
the  difficulty  by  impeding  the  circulation  and  main- 
taining the  unfavorable  position.  Hence  stiflfened 
laced  boots  ought  not  to  be  relied  upon  as  a  curative 
means  for  weak  ankles,  and  should  not  be  worn  by 
young  children,  for  their  tendency  is  to  weaken  the 


352 


IN^CENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


anlde  by  limiting  the  motion.  Higli  slioe?,  worn  with 
leggings  or  gaiters,  are  tlie  most  comfortable  and  salu- 
tary for  children  during  the  winter  season,  wdien  they 
are  exposed  to  the  cold  air ;  that  is,  if  the  shoes  are 
sufficiently  large  for  the  feet,  and  will  admit  of  thick, 
warm  stockings,  by  the  aid  of  which  both  the  legs  and 
feet  are  protected,  while  the  blood  is  permitted  to 
circulate  freely  and  to  contribute  largely  to  the  sustain- 
ing of  warmth. 

The  frequent  change  of  underclothing  is  an  essential 
requisite  to  the  maintenance  of  health,  as  the  ex- 
creta of  the  skin,  which,  we  repeat,  are  considerable 
in  healthy  persons,  are  retained  by  the  clothing,  and 
will  become  more  or  less  intermingled  with  the  atmo- 
spheric air,  and  be  returned  into  the  system.  The 
skin,  we  have  previously  remarked,  performs  a  very 
similar  function  to  that  of  the  lungs;  it  therefore  re- 
quires pure  air  for  the  promotion  of  health.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  observing  cleanliness  about  the  per- 
son, and  of  protecting  the  skin  from  any  unfavorable 
influences,  and  especially  from  becoming  enteebied 
by  excessive  perspiration  and  consequent  evaporation, 
which  produce  chilliness,  and  from  exposure  to  cold, 
which  impedes  the  free  circulation  of  the  blood  in  that 
organ.  If  the  circulation  in  the  skin  is  interrupted, 
there  will  be  an  excess  of  blood  in  the  internal  mem- 
branes, which  will  predispose  them  to  derangement, 
and,  as  cold  is  a  most  decided  sedative,  not  unfre- 
quently  induce  a  torpor  of  the  whole  system.  It  must 
not  be  inferred,  however,  that  cold  repels  the  heat 
from  the  surface  internally,  and  that  it  is  returned 
with  increased  vigor,  even  in  robust  persons.    This  is 


CLOTRIXG   AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD. 


353 


not  the  ease.  Tlie  lieat  is  dissipated  in  the  cold  media, 
and  the  system  is  deprived  of  its  natural  quantum ; 
and  time,  in  proportion  to  tlie  vigor  of  the  system,  is 
required  to  accumulate  the  wonted  status  or  natural 
condition.  The  reaction  that  takes  place,  and  the 
seemingly  increased  glow  of  warmth,  is  a  deceptive 
nervous  sensation.  The  tliermometer,  if  placed  in 
the  mouth,  will  show  a  diminution  of  heat  when  this 
pleasurable  sensation  is  experienced.  And  this  proves 
the  advantage  tliat  is  obtainable  from  cold  air  or  cold 
water  in  cases  of  fever,  where  there  is  an  excess  of  heat 
in  the  skin  ;  and  the  reverse  where  there  is  an  inability 
to  accumulate  a  sufficiency  of  heat,  in  consequence  of 
a  feebleness  of  the  nervous  system,  from  which  severe 
chills  ensue,  and,  at  times,  torpor  resulting  in  death. 

Children,  constitutionally  feeble  persons,  and  the 
aged,  should  be  carefully  guarded  against  the  influ- 
ence of  cold.  Where  persons  possess  but  little  ability 
to  accumulate  an  increase  of  temperature — such  as 
there  is  in  the  normal  condition  of  persons  of  sound  con- 
stitutions, and,  as  is  the  tendency  of  the  animal  system, 
if  sufficient  stamina  exists,  and  time  is  given  for  its  ac- 
complishment— an  appreciable  amount  can  be  ob- 
tained, under  gradual  exercise,  by  inurement  to  the 
cold  bath,  and  by  exposure  to  a  limited  degree  of 
cokL  But  this  depends  upon  the  physical  ability  ;  for 
where  it  does  not  exist,  these  influences  are  decidedly 
injui-ious.  In  the  attempt  to  invigorate  feeble  chil- 
dren or  delicate  adults  by  exposure  that  others  en- 
dure with  impunity,  all  the  indications  of  scrofula 
are  produced,  and  sometimes  some  immediate  fatal 
disease.    Whatever  has  a  tendency  to  enfeeble  or  ar- 


354 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


rest  tlie  vital  energies  of  tlie  system  is  injurious. 
Whether  it  be  cold,  fear,  grief,  want  of  proper  nutii- 
ment,  over-anxiety,  excessive  excitement  or  labor, 
confinement  in  overheated  rooms,  an  excess  of  cloth- 
ing in  warm  weather,  or  exposure  to  an  atmosphere 
deprived  of  its  electricity,  the  eifects  Avill  be  very 
analogous  upon  the  animal  syetem,  and  in  ratio  to  its 
vigor  and  to  age.  These  depressing  influences  are 
fearfully  operating  upon  all  classes  of  people  at  the 
present  time  ;  but  more  especially  upon  the  inhabi- 
tants of  our  populous  cities.  The  millionaire  ever 
anxious  about  his  investments,  the  tradesman  ever  de- 
sirous for  patronage,  the  master  mechanic  wrestling 
to  complete  his  engagements  with  a  profit,  the  poor 
laborer  sorrowing  over  his  increasing  family  or  over 
sickness — the  result  of  deprivations — and  lastly,  the 
reckless  politician  and  the  pursuer  of  pleasure  and 
vice,  all  suffer  from  their  irregular  habits  ;  and  it  is 
these  people  who  are  the  parents  of  those  feeble  chil- 
dren, the  majority  of  whom  so  fearfidly  enlarge  our 
bills  of  mortality,  wliile  the  survivors  constitute  our 
rising  generation.  To  insure  physical  improvement, 
th^se  apparent  evils  must  be  obviated,  and  the  diet, 
the  clothing,  the  exercise,  and  the  temperature  to 
which  the  people  are  subjected,  must  be  carefully 
regulated. 


CHAPTER  III. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

Exercise  a  manifestation  of  life — It  is  essential  to  its  well-being" — 
The  first  exercises  of  the  infant — Discipline  necessary  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  children— Objections  to  the  cradle — Riding  more  bene- 
ficial to  children  than  being  carried — Causes  which  lead  to  chil- 
dren becoming  tender — How  it  is  that  poor  children  endure  great 
exposure — Their  habits  of  life — The  practical  lessons  we  obtain 
from  them — Modification  in  treatment  necessary  for  delicate  chil- 
dren— Vital  force  exhaustive — It  is  increased  by  gradual  demand 
— Muscular  activity  maintained  by  nutriment — The  benefits  which 
accrue  from  active  exercises — The  injurious  effects  of  fatigue — 
When  passive  exercises  are  advantageous — Pleasure  should  be 
associated  with  exercise — When  exercise  is  most  salutary — Spe- 
cial exercises  for  the  restoration  of  lost  powers — Excessive  exer- 
cise should  be  avoided — Treatment  in  cases  of  deformity — Club- 
feet and  their  cure — General  deductions. 

THE  starting-point  in  physical  exercise  is  natu- 
rally the  first  movements  of  the  living  econ- 
omy, which  are  independent  of  the  will,  and  are  pro- 
duced h J  the  cofitr action  and  extension  of  the  organized 
mnsGidar  fibre.  The  heart  contracts  upon  the  blood, 
and  by  vital  energy  forces  it  out  to  tlie  superficies  of 
the  body.  It  then,  by  this  peculiar  energy,  and  in- 
dependent of  tlie  will,  alternates  its  action,  and,  extend- 
ing its  fibres,  thereby  enlarges  its  cavity  to  receive 
a  return  of  the  blood ;  this  operation  is  facilitated  by 


356 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH, 


ETC. 


a  contraction  of  the  muscdar  fibres  in  the  blood-ves- 
sels, which  also  perforin  their  functions  nnder  the 
same  influence,  and  alternate  in  tlieir  action.  By  this 
means,  we  liave  the  circulation  of  tlie  blood  estab- 
lished in  the  animal  body.  The  activity  require^  to 
be  sustained  by  the  vital  force,  wdiich  is  exhaustive, 
and  is  supplied  by  the  will  bringing  muscles  into 
action  subservient  to  desire,  when  muscular  motion 
increases  the  demand  and  leads  to  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  body.  Growth  and  strength  are  depend- 
ent upon  muscular  activit}^,  sustained  by  proper  nu- 
triment; but  every  organ  constituting  the  animal 
form,  ^(^r  se^  is  limited  in  its  power,  such  limit  being 
determined  by  circumstances,  the  most  favorably  con- 
stituted having,  as  experience  has  to  a  certain  extent 
proved,  a  maximum  limit,  that  can  only  be  developed 
by  very  propitious  events. 

The  new-born  infant,  in  crying,  freely  exerts  its  lit- 
tle jaws  and  tongue,  and  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen  ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  legs,  the  arms, 
and  even  the  toes  and  fingers,  are  all  put  in  motion. 
In  addition  to  its  own  effoj'ts  of  voluntarij  motion  and 
exercise^  the  babe  soon  learns  to  call  loudly  for  han- 
dling— an  instinctive  impulse  to  its  own  adv^antage  in 
the  way  of  exercise.  The  first  exercise  to  be  recom- 
mended to  an  infant  is  to  place  it,  when  a  few"  days 
old,  upon  a  soft  pillow,  and  gently  agitate  it  on  the 
knee.  This  may  be  denominated  passim  exercise^  as 
the  motion  of  the  body  is  very  similar  to  that  ob- 
tained in  riding,  Avhich  is  independent  of  a  person's 
own  muscular  effort.  The  practice  may  be  increased 
as  the  vigor  and  strength  of  the  babe  increase,  for  it 


THYSTCAL  EXERCISE. 


357 


will  promote  activity  in  the  system,  and  be  conducive 
to  development.  Infants  wlio  are  much  confined  to 
a  cpiiescent  condition  are  liable  to  become  dull,  in- 
animate, and  exceedingly  fat. 

Exercise  should  not  be  given  irregularly,  nor  at  all 
tiuies.  A  regular  discipline  should  be  strictly  en- 
forced, for  such  discipline  is  as  essential  to  the  exer- 
cise having  a  salutary  influence  upon  the  child  as  it 
is  to  the  relief  of  the  attendant.  The  natural  dispo- 
sition of  an  infant  induces  it  to  sleep  after  it  has  been 
nursed  or  suckled,  when  all  the  powers  of  the  system 
are  concentrated  to  digest  the  food.  This  is  beneficial 
to  the  babe,  as  the  vigor  it  obtains  from  food  is  not  ex- 
pended in  outward  form,  as  it  is  by  labor,  but  is  ap- 
propriated to  the  development  of  the  bocly.  After 
sleep,  a  brisk  handling  of  the  child  will  enliven  the 
nervous  energies  of  its  system,  and  induce  an  appe- 
tite. Then,  when  a  suitable  interval  has  elapsed  after 
digestion  and  exercise,  the  system  will  be  benefited 
by  a  regularity  of  necessary  supply,  and  the  organic 
functions  will  be  regularly  performed,  and  never  in- 
iured  by  being  overburdened,  as  they  would  be  by  an 
irregularity  in  taldng  food.  As  desire  is  prompted  by 
the  wants  of  the  systern,  and  as  habit  governs  desire, 
the  child  will  be  reconciled  to  this  regularity.  A  due 
observance  of  stated  periods  for  taking  food,  exercise, 
and  rest  are  necessary  to  obtain  a  reasonable  prospect 
of  a  healthy  child. 

No  imprudence  in  regimen  contributes  more  to  the 
catalogue  of  diseases  and  indescribable  ill  health,  whe- 
ther in  children  or  adults,  than  irregularity  in  taking 
food  and  rest,  for  neither  of  which  is  there  such  satis- 


358 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


factory  desire  as  tliat  induced  by  agreeable  exercise. 
In  order  that  the  full  powers  of  tlie  system  may  be 
brought  into  their  wonted  vigor,  a  strong  desire  for 
food  and  rest  is  requisite.  In  fact,  for  the  enjoyment 
of  liealth  in  every  period  of  life  we  are  dependent  npon 
regularity  in  partaking  of  food,  exercise,  and  rest;  and 
if  regular  habits  are  commenced  in  early  life,  and  con- 
tinued, we  insure  both  vigor  of  constitution  and  lon- 
gevity. 

Various  exercises  have  been  introduced  for  infants, 
the  most  common  being  rocking  in  the  cradle.  This 
is  usually  commenced  after  the  child  is  a  month  or  so 
old,  and  continued  for  about  eighteen  months,  but  the 
practice  is  condemned  by  many.  The  greatest  ob- 
jection to  the  cradle  is  that  its  contracted  form  tends 
to  an  unobservable  habit  of  coriiiniug  the  child's 
limbs,  and  caiises  it  to  be  rendered  injuriously  warm 
by  the  covering  being  compacted  too  closely  about  it. 
The  latter  induces  excessive  perspiration  and  leads  to 
serious  injnry  ;  for,  npon  the  child  being  taken  np,  it 
is  often  exposed  to  the  cool  air,  which,  owing  to  an  in- 
fant being  more  sensitive  than  an  older  person,  pro- 
duces chill.  However,  nnder  other  circumstances, 
such  an  exposure  would  prove  of  actual  benefit  to  its 
health. 

The  rocking  motion  of  a  cradle,  if  moderate,  is  a 
pleasurable  exercise  for  an  infant,  and  is  not  objec- 
tionable ;  but  violent  rocking  and  jolting  is  decidedly 
injurious,  as  it  agitates  the  brain  and  endangers  the 
intellect.  It  is  a  cruel  treatment,  and  will  often 
frighten  a  child  into  a  state  of  quietude,  even  when  it 
may  be  suffering  from  some  internal  pain.    A  nd  again, 


PHYSICAL  EXEPwClSE. 


359 


tlie  cliild,  when  gratified  witli  moderate  rocking,  is 
frequently  kept  in  the  cradle  when  it  would  be  much, 
to  its  advantage  if  it  were  carried  out  in  the  nurse's 
arjns,  or  were  dandled  on  the  knee.  Either  of  these 
would  give  it  a  more  perfect  motion  or  agitation, 
with  the  additional  advantages  of  a  partially  upright 
position  of  the  body,  and  of  air,  both  of  wdiich  are 
conducive  to  its  health,  are  as  essential  as  motion, 
and  when  combined  are  most  beneficial.  Still,  taking 
an  infant  out  into  the  open  air  should  be  introduced 
gradually  and  regularly,  so  as  to  inui*e  it,  as  it  ad- 
vances in  age  and  strength,  to  out-door  exercise  ;  be- 
sides, it  should  by  all  means  be  comfortably  clad,  and, 
when  drawn  in  a  little  wagon,  have  the  body  placed 
m  a  nearly  upright  position.  The  exercise  it  obtains 
when  so  situated  is  preferable  to  that  which  it  gets  in 
the  nurse's  arms  while  walking,  in  addition  to  which 
it  is  more  gratifying,  and  is  therefore  rendered  more 
beneficial.  When  tlie<?hild  can  walk,  it  should  be  al- 
lowed to  do  so  in  the  open  air  to  the  extent  of  its 
ability,  that  is,  provided  no  unfavorable  circumstances 
interfere. 

We  repeat,  what  we  have  stated  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  that  care  should  be  taken  at  all  times  to  have 
the  lower  limbs  of  children  clothed,  and  under  no  con- 
sideration of  pride  to  permit  their  necks  and  arms  to 
be  uncovered,  as  it  is  as  important  that  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  should  be  equal  in  all  parts  of* the  body 
as  that  the  latter  should  be  invigorated  and  increased 
by  exercise.  Danger  will  certainly  ensue  if  an  equal 
protection  is  not  given  to  all  parts  of  the  body  and 
limbs,  for  those  parts  are  rendered  tender  and  sensi- 


3(30 


incentivp:s  to 


HEALTH,  ETC. 


tive  by  warm  beds  and  comfortable  rooms.  If,  wliils 
out  of  doors,  tlie)"  are  not  protected  from  the  rapid 
absorption  of  heat  by  tlie  circuLatiiig  atmosphere,  whicli 
absorption  will  be  in  direct  ratio  to  its  velocity,  the 
consequences  may  be  serious.  The  exposed  parts,  be- 
ing thereby  reduced  in  temperature,  are  enfeebled, 
and  a  predisposition  to  internal  derangement  is  in- 
duced. Nor  is  it  safe  to  permit  exposure  within 
doors,  as  even  there  children  cannot  be  always  pro- 
tected from  currents  of  air,  which  neitlier  the  most 
robust  and  vigorously  constituted  of  them,  nor  even 
adults,  can  endure  for  a  few  moments  with  impunity. 

In  answer  to  the  query  that  may  arise.  Why  do 
children  of  indigent  parentage  endure  so  much  ex- 
posure with  seeming  good  health  ?  we  reply  that  these 
children  are  subject  to  exposure  from  birth;  and  the 
result  is  that  those  who  do  not  possess  robust  consti- 
tutions are  eliminated,  as  they  die  at  an  early  age,  af- 
ter, in  many  cases,  enduring  great  suffering,  about 
which,  owing  to  the  obscurity  of  the  abodes  of  the  poor, 
people  in  comfortable  circumstances  know  nothing. 
It  is  this  fact  of  the  indigent  living  away  from  the 
usnal  resorts  of  the  more  favored  classes  that  partly 
accounts  for  so  few  little  cripples  being  seen  in  the 
leading  thoroughfares  of  large  cities  ;  but  that  their 
number  is  very  far  from  being  limited  has  been  ren- 
dered apparent  to  the  author  during  his  experience 
in  the  institution  over  which  he  has  control;  while 
other  reasons  for  their  being  so  seldom  seen  are,  that 
many  are  nnable  to  leave  their  miserable  homes,  and 
that  the  industrious  poor  refrain  from  exposing  their 
crippled  children,  from  a  praisev/orthy  abhorrence  of 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


361 


an  idle  curiosity  too  often  manifested  by  unreflecting 
people.  It  is  among  these  little  snfierers  that  we 
usually  find  scrofula,  in  its  most  virulent  encroach- 
ments upon  the  human  form,  and  tainted  with  heredi- 
tary influence,  the  result  of  poverty  and  vice. 

The  hardy  children  we  see  so  poorly  clad,  witli  limhs, 
breast,  neck,  and  head  bare,  and  leaving  the  impress 
of  their  unprotected  feet  in  the  mud  or  snow,  have, 
from  the  hour  of  their  birtli,  never  known  wliat  it  is 
to  enjoy  the  comfoi'ts  of  a  warm  bed.  Their  first  couch 
was  a  quilt  spread  on  the  floor,  and  covered  with  an 
old  shawl,  in  which  they  found  no  warmth — that  they 
only  obtained  when  nursed  in  the  mother's  arms. 
Those  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  born  in  early 
summer  were  enabled  to  endure  the  winter  with  a 
single  garment  upon  them,  warming  themselves,  when 
in- doors,  at  a  little  charcoal  fire  placed  in  a  small  por- 
table furnace,  and  used  for  cooking  a  scanty  meal  of 
perhaps  a  broiled  herring  and  a  little  coffee.  But 
stern  necessity  soon  drove  them  out  into  the  streets 
and  sharpened  their  intellect;  and  before  they  had 
advanced  far  in  life,  the  precocious  children  conimenc- 
ed  their  vocation  of  begging,  by  dropping  the  head 
and  extending  the  hand,  even  before  they  could  speak 
plain  enough  to  ask  for  alms.  Thns  early  did  they 
commence  to  earn  their  own  living,  and  perchance  pro- 
vide for  dissipated  parents,  which  latter  will  even  some- 
times send  out  "their  crippled  children  upon  begging 
expeditions,  knowing  that  their  unfortunate  condition 
will  influence  the  donations  of  the  charitably  disposed. 

In  winter,  the  more  active  of  these  unfortunate  chil- 
dren will  keep  themselves  warm  during  the  day  by 


362 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEAITII,  ETC. 


freel}^  exercising,  while  at  niglit  all  will  huddle  in  lots 
of  two  or  mors  on  quilts  or  straw,  with  nothing  for 
covering  save  the  thin  and  probably  wet  clothes  they 
wore  thronghout  the  day.  In  the  siininicr  nights, 
however,  they  fare  mucli  better  by  sleeping  in  areas 
and  secluded  places,  usually  seated  upon  the  brick  or 
stone  pavement,  with  the  back  placed  against  the  wall, 
the  lower  limbs  folded  under  the  body,  the  arms  crossed 
upon  the  knees,  and  the  head  resting  upon  the  arms. 
They  generally  fare  very  well  as  to  diet,  as  they  ob- 
tain bread,  meat,  and  cold  vegetables  in  abundance, 
from  which  they  select  the  most  palatable  morsels,  and, 
if  not  compelled  to  provide  for  their  parents,  throw 
the  rest  away. 

From  these  facts  we  are  enabled  to  derive  the  fol- 
lowing valuable  practical  lessons  :  First,  that  to  enable 
robust  cliildren  to  endure  the  extremes  of  vicissitude 
in  our  climate,  it  is  necessary  to  commence  at  birth  to 
clothe  them  very  lightly  and  to  keep  them  in  a  cold 
room ;  to  let  them  sleep  on  the  floor,  with  a  blanket  for 
bed  and  covering,  and,  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  take 
solid  food,  to  give  them  cold  and  nourishing  diet,  such 
as  bread,  meat,  and  cold  water.  Children  thus  dis- 
ciplined will  not  be  readily  injured  by  having  the  legs, 
arms,  neck,  or  the  whole  body,  exposed  to  wind  and 
frost,  especially  if  they  have  plenty  of  out-door  exer- 
cise. The  skin  will  be  prepared  to  resist  the  cold,  or 
ratlier  to  accumulate  sufficient  heat  tb  maintain  the 
circulation  equally  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  wliicli  will 
be  much  assisted  by  active  exercise.  Secondly,  that 
delicately  constituted  children  cannot  endure  such 
plain  and  frigid  treatment,  but  that  they  can  be  much 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


303 


improved  and  invigorated  by  a  proper  modification  of 
it.  Tliirdly,  that  robust,  vigorous  children  will  be 
seriously  injured  by  being  kept  in  warm  rooms  and 
allowed  to  sleep  in  w^arm  beds,  and  by  being  then  only 
partially  clothed  when  suddenly  exposed  to  the  open 
air,  even  if  it  is  mild  in  temperature ;  for,  when  thus 
pampered,  exercise  is  exceedingly  hurtful,  owing  to  its 
direct  tendency  being  to  excite  perspiration,  and  thus 
to  increase  the  enfeebling  effects  of  the  atmosphere 
upon  the  very  sensitive  skin.  When  such  children 
are  so  indulged,  the  air  acts  very  directly  upon  the 
exposed  parts  of  the  body  and  limbs,  and  thereby  in- 
duces inflammation  of  the  throat,  bronchia,  and  lungs, 
and,  when  it  is  the  lower  limbs  that  are  exposed,  bowel 
complaints.  In  fact,  the  whole  system  is  frequently 
debilitated  and  impaired  to  such  a  degree  that  all  the 
indications  of  scrofula  supervene,  which  parents  Will 
tell  you  have  arisen  from  their  children  having  taken 
cold. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  may  be  reasonably 
inferred  that  cool  rooms,  well  ventilated,  and  the  use 
of  a  very  moderate  amount  of  bed-clothing,  will  pre- 
pare the  young  to  be  comfortable  with  comparatively 
light  clothing,  which  should  be  made  to  cover  all  parts 
of  the  body  and  limbs  ;  and  that  their  food  should 
be  plain  and  nourishing,  and  their  exercises  in  the 
open  air  well  regulated,  and,  if  possible,  recreative. 
The  latter  renders  discipline  more  salutary,  as  it  im- 
proves both  the  physical  and  mental  powers,  and  pre- 
pares the  mind  for  education.  When  the  hours  of 
study  are  alternated  by  equal  periods  of  recreative  ex- 
ercises, the  physical  powers  are  not  impaired  by  se- 


364 


INC3NTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


dentary  labor,  and  a  vigorous,  healthy  adolescence  is 
obtained. 

Physical  exercise,  were])eat,  consists  in  the  contrac- 
tion and  extension  of  the  muscles,  which  movement  is 
accomplished  by  vital  force.  This  force  is  generated 
from  nutriment,  its  increase  being  governed  by  the  •« 
demand  for  it ;  but  this  increase  is  not  in  direct  ratio 
to  tlie  amount  of  nourishment  taken,  for  the  most 
arduous  laborer,  or  the  man  of  great  muscular  power 
and  endurance,  who  can  perform  six  hours  of  hard 
labor  without  ceasing  and  without  being  much  incon- 
venienced, will,  in  many  instances,  be  satisfied  with 
less  food  than  one  wlio  never  labored  a  day  at  a  time 
in  his  life,  and  who  could  not  endure  two  hours'  hard 
labor  without  actual,  and,  probably,  very  serious  in- 
jury to  his  person.  Still,  if  this  latter  person  w^ere 
to  commence  labor  by  working  for  half  an  hour  at  a 
time,  and  resting  at  regular  intervals  to  recuperate,  lie 
w^ould,  in  the  course  of  a  given  time,  be  able  to  Avork 
for  six  hours  without  intermission  with  impunity, 
and  without  an  increase  of  food. 

It  is,  in  reality,  a  well-established  fact,  that  strength 
sufficient  to  meet  a  gradual  demand  is  obtained  w^ith- 
out  an  increased  call  for  food.  The  limit  of  strength 
is  determined  by  the  development  and  innate  vigor  of 
the  organization,  and  requires  for  its  augmentation 
gradually  increased  exercise  of  the  muscular  tissues. 
Such  exercise  is  commonly  denominated  active^  in 
contradistinction  to  that  called  passive^  which  latter 
consists  of  riding,  etc. 

Active  exercise  conduces  to  a  very  general  and  de- 
cided influence.    It  excites  the  digestive  powers  to 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


greater  activity,  and  causes  the  food  to  be  more  fully 
appropriated  to  development  and  force.  In  the  varied 
changes  of  temperature  light  and  air  also  contribute 
largely  to  these  results,  by  giving  firmness  to  the  mus- 
cle and  resistance  to  the  skin,  and  thus  defend  the  in- 
ternal organs  from  the  injurious  influence  of  the  wea- 
ther. 

It  must  be  remembered  that,  however  vigorous  the 
person,  the  animal  system  can  not  be  rendered  invul- 
nerable to  certain  circumstances.  Of  this  we  have  an 
example  when  the  surface  is  excited  to  great  activity 
and  sensitiveness,  as  by  extraordinary  exercise.  If  the 
exercise  which  has  produced  that  condition  is  not  con- 
tinued while  a  person  is  exposed  to  the  full  influence 
of  a  cold,  damp  atmosphere,  the  resistance  of  the  skin 
will  be  overcome,  and  a  most  seriously  injurious  im- 
pression made,  though  the  sensation  may  be  pleasu- 
rable, and  thus  insidious.  A  fatal  impress  may  be 
made  upon  a  person  who  indulges  in  taking  rest  in  a 
current  of  air  when  he  is  in  a  profuse  perspiration 
and  his  system  is  fatigued,  as  the  vital  force  is  then 
more  or  less  exhausted,  and  is  subdued  by  outward  in- 
fluences. 

Fatigue  renders  the  animal  system  subject  to  many 
very  unfavorable  encroachments.  A  jjerson  standing 
in  an  upright  position  for  a  considerable  time  (which 
many  occupations  require)  finds  it  necessary  to  make 
constant  eff'ort  and  exertion  to  sustain  that  position. 
After  a  time  this  exertion  exhausts  his  vital  force  to 
such  a  degree  that  gravity  gets  the  ascendency,  and 
the  circulation  of  the  returning  blood  from  the  lower 
extremities  is  impeded  for  the  want  of  such  force. 


366 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


And  this  leave  to  engorgement  of  the  veins,  eventu- 
ating in^extensive  ulceration,  and  to  a  gravitating  ten- 
dency downward  of  the  abdominal  viscera,  often  ter- 
minating in  serions  derangements  wliicli  require  the 
artificial  support  of  lace-stockings,  trusses,  and  belts, 
known  as  abdominal  supporters  and  aflbrding  the  best 
means  of  relief  in  such  cases.  And  thus  we  perceive 
that  we  have  antagonistic  forces  constantly  operating 
against  the  vital  or  living  powers,  and  that  reason  and 
experience  are  our  only  protection  against  them. 

Active  exercises  are  much  more  valuable  to  the  nor- 
mal condition  of  man  than  passive ;  yet  the  latter  are 
exceedingly  useful  to  those  who  are  unable  to  obtain 
the  former,  or  who  have  not  force  of  mind  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefit  of  ac- 
tive exercise.  To  the  valetudinarian  laboring  under 
an  abnormal  condition  of  health,  and  to  a  child  or  an 
adult  suff*ering  from  a  deficiency  of  muscular  power, 
such  as  results  from,  partial  paralysis  in  the  former  or 
an  enfeebled  condition  in  either,  passive  exercise,  if 
conjoined  with  agreeable  pastime  in  the  open  air,  and 
with  the  body  properly  protected  by  clothing,  will  be 
of  great  advantage  in  the  promotion  of  health  and 
vigor ;  wdjile  persons  laboring  under  indigestion  and 
feeble  appetite  w^ill  derive  marked  benefit  from  a  drive 
in  an  open  carriage  or  a  ride  on  horseback  through 
some  beautiful  scenery.  Thus  diversion  and  exercise 
will  be  given  to  the  mind  at  the  same  time  that  mo- 
tion is  given  to  the  circulating  system,  and  mental  de- 
spondency and  bodily  infirmity  will  be  equally  relieved. 

Exercise  exerts  the  most  salutary  influence  an  hour 
or  two  after  taking  food.    Whether  it  be  active  or 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE.  SGI 

passive,  it  equalizes  the  excitement  throughout  tlie  sys- 
tem, but  it  more  especially  determines  the  vital  force 
to  the  surface  and  limbs,  and  it  thus  retards  the  di- 
gestive process,  which  requires  a  concentration  of  that 
force  in  the  stomach,  and  in  direct  ratio  to  the  ability 
of  the  digestive  organs  to  digest  food.  Hence  it  is 
that  we  are  dull  and  sluggish  after  partaking  of  an 
over-hearty  meal,  when  there  is  a  concentration  of  vi- 
tal force,  or  an  effort  of  nature  to  relieve  itself  of  the 
excessive  burden.  If  this  effort  is  interrupted  in  its 
process  fermentation  ensues  and  produces  much  in- 
convenience to  the  person  and  actual  injury  to  the 
system. 

Special  exercises  for  the  increase  of  power,  having 
for  their  object  the  direction  of  the  vital  forces  to 
partially  paralyzed  limbs,  are  of  great  value  as  reme- 
dial agents.  Motion,  carefully  and  perseveringly  im- 
parted, often  results  in  the  restoration  of  muscular 
power.  But  the  practice  requires  a  skilful  discern- 
ment of  the  innate  powei^s,  with  the  exercises  regu- 
lated accordingly ;  otherwise  the  latent  spark  may  be 
exhausted,  or  the  whole  muscular  system  may  be  les- 
sened in  its  ability  to  accumulate  power,  from  "injury 
being  sustained  by  an  excess  of  rubbing  or  of  passive 
exercise  in  treatment  which  is  often  practised  upon 
children  who  are  unable  to  walk  after  the  expiration 
of  the  ordinary  age,  or  who  are  laboring  under  partial 
paralysis.  Such  cases  require  very  special  care,  as  tlie 
mechanical  support  shonld  be  gradually  dispensed  with 
as  the  energy  increases. 

Excessive  exercise  destroys  all  tendency  to  a  resto- 
ration of  lost  power ;  while  a  uniform  continued  sup- 


368 


IXCENTIYES  TO   HEALTH,  ETC. 


port,  by  being  a  sii  i'-titiite  for  the  natural  powers,  ar- 
rests the  progress  of  cure.  And  this  shonhl  teadi  us 
how  necessary  it  is  that  an  experienced  and  skilful 
practitioner  should  be  employed  to  prescribe  a  judi- 
cious course  of  treatment  by  the  adoption  of  the  most 
reliable  means,  in  which  recourse  should  be  first  had 
to  exercise  by  passive  motion,  wliich  should  be  fol-  ^ 
lowed  by  the  appliance  of  surgico-meclianical  appa- 
ratus that  will  support  the  body  in  an  upriglit  posi- 
tion. Such  a  course  of  treatment  will  induce  a  dis- 
position to  progressive  movement,  and  cause  the  loill 
to  have  a  most  salutary  influence  upon  the  muscles  by 
inciting  eflbrt,  and  thus  naturally  determining  power 
to  the  deficient  parts,  whether  those  parts  be  one  or 
more  of  the  lim.bs  of  an  adult  or  a  child.  Still  the 
progress  towards  cure  will  be  slow ;  yet  we  have  the'  i 
gratifying  assurance,  from  precedents,  that,  in  cases  of 
deficiency  of  power  in  children,  they  are  nearly  all 
curable  when  they  are  judiciously  treated.  The  ten- 
dency to  growth  contributes  largely  to  the  cure;  but 
the  constant  disposition  to  restoration  of  power  in 
the  muscles,  if  not  properly  guarded  against,  will,  in- 
stead of  a  cure,  produce  one  of  those  extraordinary 
cases  of  deformity  that  are  so  often  witnessed.  This 
is  attributable  to  the  larger  muscles  receiving  power 
first,  and  exerting  it  to  the  detriment  of  the  lesser, 
which  are  more  numerous,  and  are  weakened  in  direct 
ratio  as  the  stronger  contract,  and  keep  the  antago- 
nistic  muscles  extended,  and  thereby  destroy  their  ten- 
dency to  recuperate. 

The  treatment  requires  special  attention  to  obvi- 
ate continued  extension  which  promotes  absorption, 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


369 


whereby  tlie  muscles  diminisli  in  size,  and  thus  pre- 
vent a  possibility  of  establishing  the  wonted  muscular 
action,  which  is  contraction  and  extension.  For  the 
want  of  this  motion,  even  the  large  nmscles,  that  first 
contract,  will  diminish  in  size  till  they  become  mere 
cords  ;  while  the  want  of  motion  in  the  joints  will 
cause  the  membranes  around  the  joints  to  conform  to 
their  contracted  shape  and  fix  them  in  their  deformit3\ 
Yet,  in  these  extreme  cases,  surgical  skill  will  often 
restore  children  who  are  so  seriously  afflicted  to  the 
use  of  their  limbs. 

Children  born  with  club  feet  have  their  legs  and 
feet  as  fully  developed  as  those  of  well  formed  chil- 
dren. It  is  only  after  they  are  enabled  by  their  own 
strength  to  sustain  themselves  in  an  upright  position 
that  the  leg  below  the  knee  diminishes  in  size;  and,  as 
they  grow  older,  it  becomes  reduced  to  mere  tendons, 
skin,  and  bone.  The  foot  being  fixed  by  its  contor- 
tion, the  ankle  joint  is  deprived  of  motion,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  muscles  of  the  sides,  back,  and 
front  of  the  leg  are  deprived  of  their  wonted  motion. 
The  continued  extension  induces  absorption  and  di- 
minishes the  muscular  fibres,  as  they  are  not  required 
for  use.  These  facts  indicate  that  motion  requires 
contraction  and  extension  of  muscles,  in  order  to 
sustain  every  part  of  the  animal  system  in  its  integ- 
rty ;  for,  as  soon  as  the  surgeon  divides  one  or  more 
of  the  fixed  tendons  that  arrest  muscular  motion,  ac- 
tive exercise  is  soon  practicable,  and  the  leg  increases 
in  size.  Then,  a  certain  limited  amount  of  exercise 
will  maintain  the  muscular  system  in  ability  to  be  in- 
vigorated :  but  strength  can  only  be  acquired  by  vv  ell 


370 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


regulated  but  frequent  exercise,  for,  if  the  muscles  are 
not  kept  in  motion,  they  will  fail  to  become  devel- 
oped and  to  accumulate  vigor.  And  thus  all  restraint 
to  the  free  action  of  muscles  should  be  carefully  guarded 
against.  The  blacksnjith,  who  wields  the  heavy  haiiji- 
mer  with  his  right  arm,  develops  the  muscles  of  that 
arm  to  a  much  larger  size  than  those  of  his  left;  and 
their  size  is  not  only  increased  but  their  red  color  is 
heightened,  showing  that  there  is  the  greatest  amount 
of  blood  distributed  through  the  muscular  fibres  of 
those  muscles  that  are  most  exercised. 

From  these  statements  we  are  naturally  led  to  con- 
clude that  an  integral  part  of  the  body,  if  deficient  in 
muscular  power,  may  be  improved  by  special  exer- 
cise; and  that,  when  all  parts  are  in  a  well  developed 
and  vigorous  condition,  they  may  be  maintained  in 
that  state  by  exercising  them  equally,  and  as  much  as 
possible  at  the  same  time  ;  but  if  this  latter  is  not  pos- 
sible, as  is  the  case  in  the  pursuance  of  certain  trades, 
then  persons  should  avail  themselves  of  general  exer- 
cise for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  healthy  condi- 
tion. To  this  recommendation  it  is  not  improbable 
that  a  most  ready  excuse  will  be  offered,  We  have 
not  time."  It  is  the  excuse  of  the  laborer,  the  me- 
chanic, the  tradesman,  the  artist,  the  merchant,  and 
the  man  of  science,  and  it  invites  our  attention  to  an- 
other variety  of  exercise — that  of  the  mental  faculties. 
With  the  mind  brought  to  a  proper  state  of  discipline, 
such  an  excuse  will  not  be  made. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

Mental  and  pliysical  powers  must  be  exercised  eqnally  to  insure 
longevity — The  etFect  of  sucli  combined  exercise  on  different 
classes — Suggestions  for  the  social  improvement  of  laboring 
men — The  greatest  amount  of  work  is  not  achieved  when  the 
entire  time  is  devoted  to  labor  or  study — Gloomy  forebodings 
prejudicial  to  health — The  effects  of  constant  excitement — Tra 
veling,  the  best  exercise— The  beneficial  influences  of  a  sojourn 
in  the  country — When  mountain  air  should  be  avoided — The  in- 
fluence traveling  exerts  upon  the  mind  and  body — How  travelers 
should  be  clotlied — 111  health  the  result  of  moral  causes — Disor- 
ganization of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  and  its  treatment — 
The  effects  caused  by  exposure  to  rapidly  moving  air — Persons 
should  be  careful  in  giving  advice  to  valetudinarians. 

THE  largest  amount  of  labor  ever  performed  hj 
man  has  been  accomplislied  by  those  persons 
who  exercised  their  mental  and  pliysical  powers 
eqnally  ;  but  they  kept  themselves  under  compk^.te 
self-control,  and  thus  found  time  for  all  they  desired 
to  do.  This,  however,  they  attained  by  systematically 
dividing  their  time,  and  by  disciplining  themselves  to 
a  strict  adherence  to  the  rules  they  laid  down  for 
their  observance.  By  this  means  they  found  time 
for  study,  and  time  for  physical  exercise  or  labor  ;  and 
they  were  further  rewarded  by  a  long  lease  of  life,  for 
longevity  is  insured  by  an  equal  exercise  of  mind 
and  muscle.    We  have  many  examples  of  this  in  the 


872 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


lives  of  Humboldt  and  other  naturalists,  who  liave 
traveled  over  the  most  inaccessible  portions  of  the 
earth  in  search  of  their  objects  of  study,  who  have 
subjected  tlieniselves  to  the  most  arduous  labor  in 
journeying  on  foot,  in  carrying  immense  loads  ^of 
specimens,  and  in  climbing  np  mountains  and  over 
rocks  and  underbrush,  and  who  liave  exposed  them- 
selves for  weeks  to  climatic  and  other  influences  most 
inimical  to  liealtli.  Dr.  R.  R.  Maddin,  in  writing 
upon  the  ''Infirmities  of  ^  Genius,"  furnishes  a  table 
of  the  rehitive  average  longevity  of  eminent  men  in 
various  pursuits,  and  shows  that  natural  philosophers 
stand  at  the  head  :  the  united  ages  of  a  certain  number 
of  these  amounted  to  1494  years,  giving  an  average 
of  Y5  years  each  ;  wliile  tlie  united  ages  of  a  number 
of  authors  and  poets  amounted  to  1300  years,  giving 
an  average  of  only  65  years. 

Witli  these  data  to  guide  us,  we  are  enabled  to  draw 
deductions  that  give  us  a  very  clear  perception  of 
the  most  salutary  influences  tliat  mental  and  physical 
exercises  exert  upon  man  when  they  are  properly 
combined. 

Pursuits  of  pleasure  often  involve  an  immense  ex- 
penditure of  labor,  which  is  sustained  by  som'e  ];)ersons 
without  apparent  fatigue,  wdiile  others,  who  even 
possess  stronger  muscular  development,  become  ex- 
hausted under  like  circumstances,  and  actually  re- 
ceive injury.  In  the  latter,  there  is  an  expenditure 
of  muscular  strength  while  the  mind  is  inactive,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  day-laborer,  or  with  one  who  has  only 
an  interest  in  the  sum  he  is  to  be  paid  for  his  work. 
If  he  is  poorly  paid,  and  is  depressed  in  mind,  his 


MEOTAL  AND  PFIYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


373 


desponding  disposition  will  lessen  lais  lease  of  life  ;  but 
not  to  the  extent  that  will  be  experienced  by  the  per- 
son who  exerts  liis  mind  more  than  his  body,  or,  by  the 
merchant  who  is  snbject  to  anxiety.  Those  who  exer- 
cise the  mind,  even  pleasnrably,  and  either  avoid  or 
can  not  find  time  for  physical  exertion,  are  the  shortest 
lived  of  all ;  and  their  lease  of  life  is  in  inverse  ratio 
to  the  extent  they  yield  to  self-inclination,  and  avoid 
proper  discipline. 

The  anthor,  the  poet,  and  all  persons  of  sedentary 
occupation,  should  not  fail  to  set  apart  a  time  wherein 
to  relieve  the  mind  by  varied  and  agreeable  pursuits 
in  which  the  muscles  can  be  exercised  and  the  mind 
refreshed.  This  is  not  so  difficult  a  matter  as  persons 
at  first  imagine.  Severe  physical  exercised  must,  how- 
ever, be  gradually  entered  upon,  or  tliey  may  prove 
seriously  injurious  instead  of  being  most  salutary,  as 
they  would  be  after  careful  inurement. 

For  the  laborer,  rooms  should  be  provided  for  social 
converse,  for  reading,  and  for  instruction  by  lectures  on 
social  government  and  economy.  Such  institutions 
onght  to  be  established  and  sustained  by  the  public, 
as  they  are  as  necessary  for  the  good  of  society  as 
public  schools,  and  they  should  be  supplied  with  well- 
sekcted  reading.  In  these  institutions,  tlie  laboring 
man,  when  able,!  should  be  induced  to  make  a  de[)Osit 
of  a  small  portion  of  his  earnings,  .which  deposit 
should  be  invested  for  his  special  benefit,  and  returned 
to  him,  with  interest,  when  he  needed  the  amount. 
No  part  of  it  should  be  expended  in  tlie  support  of 
the  institutionSo  If  this  plan  were  adoi)ted,  it  w^ould 
be  an  incentive  to  tlie  laboring  classes  to  avail  them- 


374 


INCENTIVES  T6  HEALTH,  ETC. 


selves  of  the  mental  privileges  and  pecuniary  benefits 
such  institutions  would  alford  them  ;  while  the  know- 
ledge that  they  possessed  a  hoard,  to  which  they  could 
resort  on  what  is  popularly  termed  "  a  rainy  day," 
w^ould  have  the  effect  of  diverting  their  minSs  from 
gloomy  prospects,  and  make  them  intelligent  and 
happy,  and  would  thereby  contribute  largely  to  their 
social  well-being.  At  present,  the  only  resorts  of  day 
laborers,  for  pastime  and  relief  from  their  gloomy 
thoughts,  are  the  small  groceries  and  drinking  shops, 
where  they  meet  with  low  politicians,  who  debase  their 
minds  by  their  vile  machinations.  By  the  method 
proposed,  these  laborers  would  be  enabled  to  exercise 
and  improve  their  minds,  and  they  would  thus  equalize 
the  expenditure  of  their  vital  forces,  and  find  the  benefit 
of  so  doing  in  the  improvement  of  their  moral  and 
physical  condition.  Nearly  all  other  classes  of  men 
who  are  disposed  to  avail  themselves  of  what  is  bene- 
ficial and  conducive  to  their  happiness,  possess  the 
means  whereby  they  can  acquire  such  gratification  ; 
but  it  is  not  so  wuth  the  poor  laborer,  who  is  limited 
by  stern  necessity  to  his  present  condition  ;  and  it  is 
in  consequence  of  the  degrading,  character  of  this 
condition,  and  with  a  desire  to  advance  his  social 
position,  that  we  are  led  to  offer  these  suggestions  for 
his  amelioration. 

The  avaricious  may  be  assured  that  it  is  not  by  de- 
voting the  whole  of  their  time  to  labor,  be  it  either 
in  the  exercise  of  their  physical  or  their  mental  pow- 
ers, that  they  will  achieve  the  most.  By  an  equal 
division  of  time,  alternating  bodily  and  mental 
labors,  or  interposing  periods  of  rest  or  pleasur- 


MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE.  375 


able  pursuits,  an  interim  is  obtained  for  the  accu- 
mulation of  energy  of  muscle  or  mind  ;  while,  on 
the  contrary,  by  a  wearied  perseverance  the  energies 
are  worn  out  and  confused,  and  the  powers  of  tlie 
animal  economy  are  destroyed,  for  they  soon  fail  from 
exhaustion  if  they  are  not  relieved.  Tliis  is  an  inevita- 
ble result. 

Gloomy  forebodings  tend  strongly  to  indispose  per- 
sons to  labor  or  take  exercise,  for  the  want  of  wdiich 
ill  health  ensues.  To  obviate  this  additional  calamity, 
exercise  should  be  sought  that  is  calculated  to  engross 
the  mind,  even  if  it  is  unprofitable  in  a  pecuniary 
point  of  view.  Occupation  is,  in  such  c^ses,  the  best 
and  only  means  of  making  a  desperate  rjesistance  to 
the  impending  danger.  This  conservative  principle 
is  well  understood  by  talented  generals  in  charge  of 
armies  suftering  from  reverses  ;  for,  when  actively  en- 
gaged in  resisting  an  enemy,  they  maintain  good^ 
health,  even  if  the  struggle  is  continued  for  an  extra- 
ordinary time.  The  Greek  army,  under  the  command 
of  the  Athenian  general,  Xenophon,  in  its  extraordi- 
nary retreat  of  two  hundred  and  fifteen  days  of  toil 
and  contention,  lost  scarcely  a  life  by  sickness.  On 
the  morning  after  the  fearful  night  that  succeeded  the 
murder  of  Clearchus  and  the  other  leaders  of  the 
great  army,  by  wdiich  Xenophon  was  left  alone  to 
conduct  it  through  a  perilous  retreat,  the  young 
general  addressed  his  comrades  in  this  strain :  "  The 
soldiers  have,  at  present,  nothing  before  their  eyes 
but  misfortune ;  if  any  can  turn  their  thoughts 
into  action,  it  would  greatly  encourage  them."  The 
suggestion  was  soon  acted  upon,  and  the  men  were 


376  INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


encouraged  to  resist  to  the  deatli  ratlier  than  submit 
to  capture.  Every  thing  was  destroyed  that  could  be 
an  encumbrance  ;  and  the  march  was  commenced, 
with  the  enemy  in  front  and  rear.  It  i«  stated  that 
out  of  about  ten  thousand  men,  not  over  five  hundred 
were  lost ;  and  these  only  by  such  casualties  as  being 
mired  in  swamps,  marshes,  etc. 

Constant  excitement  often  sustains  delicate  persons 
in  extraordinary  endurance.  Tliis  most  conclusively 
proves  that  a  determined  will,  which  demands  con- 
stant exercise  of  both  body  and  mind,  impairs  the 
system  much  less  than  the  extraordinary  exertion  of, 
the  one  witli-out  the  balancing  influence  of  the  other. 
Still,  the  alternating  of  mental  and  bodily  exertion 
with  pleasurable  entertainment  is  the  most  conducive 
to  good  health  and  longevity. 

The  most  efl&cacious  of  all  exercises  for  those  who 
can  aflford  the  time  and  means,  is  traveling.  It  far 
surpasses  a  sojourn  at  the  springs,  as  it  furnishes  both 
active  and  passive  exercise,  with  the  addition  of  men- 
tal diversion.  Tlie  latter  is  derived  from  the  survey 
of  new  scenery ;  not  artificial,  like  that  witnessed  in 
our  great  cities,  but  of  natural  formation  that  far  ex- 
cels the  work  of  man.  And  the  mind  is  charmed  by 
its  endless  diversity — at  one  time  impressed  with  plea- 
sure by  the  miniature  beauty  of  some  umbrageous  dell, 
and  at  another  moved  to  rapture  by  the  sublime  gran- 
deur of  some. towering  height  or  of  some  teeming 
cataract — wliile  the  exhilarating  atmosphere,  especial- 
ly in  the  mountain  ranges,  increases  alike  mental  vigor 
and  physical  strength. 

The  stimulating  quality  of  the  atmosphere  in  moim.- 


MEXTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


377 


tainoiis  regions  exceeds  that  of  tlie  air  in  any  other 
district  in  its  sahitary  influence  npon  invalids  of  en- 
feebled mind  and  body — a  most  numerous  class  in  our 
large  cities.  Such  persons  should  take  their  oti'spring 
with  them  into  the  country,  end  leave  them  there  for  a 
time  after  their  return  to  town.  In  fact,  if  it  Vv^ere 
possible  to  accomplish  it,  it  would  contribute  largely 
to  a  vigorous  manhood  if  their  children  were  to  reside 
in  the  country  for  two  or  three  months  during  every 
year  . of  early  life.  But  a  residence  in  a  mountain 
region  should  be  avoided  in  every  case  where  there  is 
an  irritable  condition  of  the  lungs,  and  more  espe- 
cially if  the  derangement  has  extended  to  congestion 
of  the  mucous  membrane  and  a  secretion  of  purulent 
mucus  has  supervened,  with  periodical  paroxysms  of 
coughing,  as,  for  instance,  coughing  severelj^  after 
rising  in  the  morning  or  upon  retiring  to  bed  at 
night  ;  for,  under  these  circumstances,  the  stimulant 
eftect  of  the  atmosphere  in  such  a  region  would  in- 
crease the  irritability  and  hasten  ulceration  of  the 
substance  of  the  lungs.  All  persons,  young  or  old, 
wdio  are  thus  afflicted  should  avail  themselves  of  a  soft, 
warm  atmosphere  in  a  tropical  climate,  traveling  in 
which  often  proves  most  decidedly  beneficial — much 
more  so  than  a  residence  in  a  variable  climate  for  any 
length  of  time. 

The  constant  employment  of  the  mind  and  the  mus- 
cular system  under  the  force  of  the  will,  when  con- 
joined, as  it  is  in  traveling,  with  passive  exercise, 
induces  a  decided  tendency  to  restoration  of  power; 
for  in  this  instance  gradual  exercise  increases  the 
ability  to  generate  strength  sufficient  to  meet  the  de~ 


'Sis 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


mand,  and  leads  to  the  whole  system  being  invigorated 
by  the  combination  of  exercises.  Hence  it  is  that 
persons  who  have  been  enfeebted  by  disease,  and  wlio 
after  confinement  to  the  house  for  months  have  sup- 
posed themselves  unable  to  take  out-door  exercise, 
have  felt  themselves  much  invigorated  and  their 
appetite  sharpened  by  a  few  hours'  ride,  and  liave 
found  their  strength  and  vigor  to  be  almost  restored 
after  a  few  days'  traveling. 

A  change  of  locality  is  generally  of  benefit  to  inva- 
'ids,  but  in  its  restorative  effects  it  bears  no  compari- 
son with  a  course  of  travel  in  coaches  or  on  horse- 
back. These  means  of  conveyance  afford  far  greater 
benefit  than  can  be  derived  from  steamboats  and  rail- 
roads, yet  traveling  on  the  latter  often  gives  much 
relief  to  persons  laboring  under  long-continued  ail- 
ment. A  train  of  new  ideas  are  induced,  and  these 
dissipate  the  desponding  passion  which  has  usurped 
the  control  of  the  mind.  And  the  relief  thus  afforded 
exliilarates  the  whole  system,  and  prepares  it  to  be 
much  benefited  by  activity  of  the  muscles,  which 
alone  can  increase  the  velocity  of  the  circulation  and 
create  a  demand  for  nutriment. 

Persons  of  a  highly  susceptible  disposition — those 
who  readily  take  cold,  or  who  by  very  slight  expo- 
sure suffer  from  rheumatism,  neuralgia,  and  other  pre- 
dispositions to  disease — are,  after  a  few  days'  travel, 
enabled  to  bear  most  extraordinary  exposure,  aud  can 
endure  rain,  cold,  and  fatigue  without  sustaining  the 
least  injury.  Tliis  is  a  direct  proof  that  the  system 
acquires  vital  resistance  from  the  activity  that  is  en- 
gendered by  the  invigorating  effect  of  the  fresh  air, 


MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


379 


and  from  the  increase  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
that  is  created  by  muscular  motion.  Almost  the  first 
indications  of  improvement  in  health  are  an  apparent 
serenity  and  mildness  of  disposition,  wliich  is  in  happy 
contrast  to  the  temperament  pi'eviously  manifested. 

The  exercise  of  traveling  induces  rapid  secretion 
from  the  surface  of  the  body ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  as 
to  produce  torpidity  of  the  bowels.  Consequently, 
tourists  will  derive  great  benefit  from  cleansing  the 
body  with  soap  and  warm  water  once  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  if  possible.  The  practice  will  amply  repay 
invalids  by  improved  health  for  any  inconvenience  it 
may  cause  them.  Travelers  should  invariably  clothe 
themselves  with  flannel  undergarments  ;  if  the  weather 
is  very  warm  they  may  be  of  gauze  flannel,  and  of 
thicker  material  as  the  temperature  decreases.  If  the  ^ 
traveler  in  pursuit  of  health  will  follow  these  instruc- 
tions he  wull  be  benefited  quite  as  much,  if  not  more, 
than  he  would  by  undergoing  treatment  at  any  water 
cure  establishment  in  the  country.  In  addition  to  the 
advantage  he  will  derive  from  the  favorable  influences 
of  traveling,  he  will  have  the  skin  restored  to  the 
wonted  performance  of  its  normal  functions — which 
are  in  variably  at  fault  in  persons  laboring  under  con- 
tinued ill  health — and  the  mind  restored  to  its  normal 
condition  by  the  dissipation  of  all  gloomy  forebodings. 
•  A  large  amount  of  suffering  from  ill  health  has  its 
origin  in  moral  causes— in  the  over-exertion  of  the 
mind,  whether  it  be  produced  by  the  pleasurable  ex- 
citement attendant  upon  prosperous  business  pursuits, 
or  whether  it  spring  from  sorrowful  sources.  In  either 
case  if  the  excitability  is  excessive  it  is  supported  at 


380 


IXCENTIYES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


the  expense  of  the  digestive  and  mnscnlar  systems, 
eTifeel)liiig  tliem  and  producing  a  morbid  derangemei.it 
that  reacts  and  produces  depression  of  tlie  mind  from 
painful  sensations.  In  the  catalogue  of  these  sensa- 
tions, we  have  indigestion,  rheumatism,  neurnlgia,  and 
not  unfrequently  disease  of  tlie  lu^art,  which  latter 
terminates  in  sudden  death  ;  as  well  as  softening  of  the 
brain,  resulting  in  imbecility,  or  of  the  spinal  mar- 
row, terminating  in  a  gradually  increasing  paralysis. 

In  the  disorganization  of  the  spinal  marrow,  tlie 
first  indication  is  an  inability  to  raise  the  foot  without 
rendt^ring  the  step  insecure ;  after  a  time  this  is  suc- 
ceeded by  an  inability  to  walk  without  support,  and 
then  there  is  a  failure  of  the  muscles  about  the  throat, 
even  to  a  difficulty  of  swallowing.  When  this  is 
accompanied  by  softening  of  the  brain,  a  gradual 
failure  of  the  mental  faculties  ensues,  with  paralysis. 
Persons  thus  afflicted,  when  exposed  to  a  cold,  damp 
atmosphere,  are  more  enfeebled  for  the  time,  the  effect 
being  very  like  that  which  aged  persons  experience 
from  cold.  The  system  fails  to  afford  resisting  excite- 
ment sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  heat  from 
the  conducting  properties  of  the  air,  wliich  under  this 
peculiar  condition  is  a  rapid  absorbent  of  the  natural 
heat  of  the  body. 

Eest  for  the  mind  in  a  dry,  bracing  atmosphere, 
well  charged  with  electricity,  such  as  is  usually 
found  in  mountainous  regions  during  the  summer 
months  and  in  dry  weather,  is  of  great  service  to  suf- 
ferers from  these  ailments,  and  to  feeble,  aged  person s^ 
especially  if  passive  exercise,  such  as  is  obtained  from 
riding  on  horseback  or  in  an  open  carriage,  is  at  the 


MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


381 


same  time  taken.  But  under  no  condition  sliould 
they  allow  themselves  to  be  subjected  to  a  concentra- 
ted draft  of  air,  nor  should  they  take  shower-baths  or 
bathe  in  cool,  running  water.  By  either  of  these  the 
system  would  be  deprived  too  rapidly  of  its  vital 
energies,  and  torpidity  would  be  produced  ;  for  when 
thus  afflicted,  there  is  an  inability  in  the  system  to  re- 
cuperate its  energies,  which  it  is  enabled  to  do  when  in. 
good  health.  Still,  the  very  desirable  ability  of  the 
system  to  accumulate  excitement  may  be  induced  by 
careful  and  proper  exercise  in  traveling,  for  then  the 
mind  is  most  likely  to  be  relieved  by  diversion.  When 
traveling  will  not  lead  to  that  result,  there  can  be  but 
little  benefit  derived  from  leaving  home. 

Rapidly  moving  air  or  water  deprives  the  animal 
system  of  its  heat,  and  consequently  of  its  vital  ener- 
gies, in  direct  ratio  to  the  velocity  of  movement  and 
frigidity  of  temperature.  And  thus  it  is  that  feeble 
persons,  upon  being  exposed  to  a  pleasurable  breeze 
of  air  in  a  confined  space,  acquire  what  is  commonly 
called  a  cold.  The  concentrated  draft  overpowers  the 
vital  energies  of  the  system,  and  deranges  its  natural 
functions,  and  most  frequently  its  secretions,  especially 
those  of  the  mucous  membranes.  It  leads  to  the  secre- 
tions being  not  properly  elaborated,  and  consequently 
induces  an  irritation  which  excites  the  membranes  to 
excessive  action.  Air,  per  se^  is  not  a  good  conductor 
of  heat.  Exposure  to  a  dry,  quiescent,  and  even  a 
cold  atmosphere,  say  to  one  of  32^  of  Fahrenheit,  is  not 
injurious,  if  the  body,  by  its  own  muscular  power,  is 
kept  in  motion  during  the  exposure ;  in  fiict,  the  electri- 
city that  the  air  affords  to  the  system  when  thus  exposed 


382 


ince:ntives  to  health,  etc. 


is  decidedly  beiiefieialj  owing  to  its  stiiindant  na- 
ture. 

Delicate  persons  sJionld  avail  themselves  of  expo- 
sure to  the  free  atmosphere,  whenever  they  are  enabled 
to  do  so  withont  producing  much  chilliness  wdien 
warmly  clad.  Such  exposure,  however,  must  be 
regulated  to  the  condition  of  a  person's  health  and 
recuperative  powers,  which  is  the  only  true  index  to 
the  ability  to  resist  extraordinary  influences.  It  is 
beyond  the  power  of  any  one  to  state,  from  casual 
appearance  and  without  an  intimate  experience,  what 
amount  of  endurance  another  can  sustain  without  in- 
jury;  therefore,  persons  should  by  no  means  persist  in 
advising  valetudinarians  to  do  what  may  have  proved 
beneticial  to  themselves,  as  tlie  difference  in  ability  to 
sustain  the  system  and  to  improve  it  by  the  same 
course  of  practice  wonld  in  many  instances  lead  to  its 
being  pernicious  and  decidedly  injurious. 


CHAPTER  V. 


MEANS  OF  RELIEF  IN  CASES  OF  ACCIDENT. 

Importance  of  timely  aid  wlieu  an  accident  occurs— Wounds  and 
their  treatment — Suspended  animation  from  drowning — SuiFoca- 
tion  from  foul  air —Suffocation  from  common  burning-gas — Gen- 
eral rules  to  be  observed  in  cases  of  suffocation — Suffocation  by 
choking — Suspended  animation  from  cold — Extensive  burns  or 
scalds — Syncope  or  fainting — Poisoning. 

IN  all  cases  of  accident,  whether  they  be  trivial  or 
serious,  much  painful  suftering  may  be  averted, 
and  even  the  life  of  the  sufterer  may  be  saved,  when 
timely  aid  is  afforded.  Consequently  it  is  important 
that  all  persons  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  what 
should  be  done  in  every  case  of  emergency,  as  a  fa- 
miliarity therewith  seldom  if  ever  fails  to  prompt  the 
good  Samaritan,  or  the  first  to  discover  an  injured  per- 
son, to  apply  the  proper  means  of  relief  The  subject, 
it  is  true,  scarcely  comes  within  the  scope  of  this  work ; 
but  we  are  impressed  with  the  belief  that  a  chapter 
pointing  out  the  best  w^ays  of  affording  such  relief, 
can  not  fail  to  add  to  its  utility. 

A  thorough  determination  to  afford  relief  is  all  that 
is  wanting  to  nerve  the  most  timid  person  to  attempt 
the  alleviation  of  a  suffering  fellow-creature,  especially 
when  such  person  possesses  the  knowledge  of  what  to 
do,  and  no  other  assistance  is  at  hand ;  and  where  in- 


384 


IXCI^NTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


experienced  persons  enn  be  called  npon  to  render  as- 
sistance, the  advice  of  one  tlwis  informed  can  be  of 
great  and  precious  value.  It  can  not  fail  to  be  a 
source  of  sad  reflection  when  persons  discover  that, 
had  they  been  acquainted  with  tlie  proper  course  to 
pursue  immediately  after  an  accident  had  occurred, 
a  knowledge  of  whicli  they  might  easily  have  attained, 
their  own  services  might  have  saved  the  life  of  a  hus- 
band, a  wife,  or  a  child.  We  therefore  earnestly  im- 
press upon  all  a  careful  perusal  of  the  follow^ing  in- 
structions in  order  that  they  may  be  enabled  to  ren- 
der efficient  assistance  whenever  any  unforeseen  ca- 
lamity may  call  their  seiwices  into  requisition. 

Wounds  and  their  treatment, — Probably  nothing  is 
more  frightful  to  a  person  unaccustomed  to  witness 
accidental  injuries  than  the  sight  of  bleeding  wounds; 
and  more  especjially  so  when  the  spectator  possesses 
a  knowledge  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  for  he 
then  views  with  alarm  the  crimson  stream  darting 
forth  in  pulse-like  jets.  But  a  knowledge  of  what 
should  be  done,  and  a  feeling  of  responsibility,  will 
almost  immediately  react  upon  fear  and  prompt  a 
person  to  make  an  effort  to  arrest  the  bleeding  by 
hastening  to  obtain  a  compress ;  and  when  nothing 
else  can  be  found  for  the  purpose,  it  is  recommended 
to  tear  off  a  portion  of  an  under  garment  and  fold  it 
carefully  into  a  compress,  not  over  an  inch  and  a  half 
square  and  at  least  half  an  inch  thick,  with  a  penny 
or  chip  enfolded  in  it  so  as  to  increase  the  firmness. 

When  blood  flows  from  an  artery,  the  compress 
must  be  placed  not  on  the  lacerated  parts,  but  on  the 
artery  running  parallel  to  tlie  liu]b,  and  about  an  inch 


MEANS  OF  RELIEF  IN  CASES  OF  ACCIDENT.  385 


from  the  wound,  in  the  direction  of  the  heart,  by 
Avhich  means  the  bleeding  vessel  is  compressed  between 
the  heart  and  the  wound,  and  the  flow  of  blood  stop- 
ped. The  arteries  convey  the  blood  from  the  heart 
to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  bleeding  from  tliem  can 
only  be  arrested  by  pressure  made  between  the  heart 
and  the  wound.  The  compress  being  properly  placed, 
a  folded  handkerchief  must  be  vv^rapped  over  it  and 
round  the  limb,  and  firmly  tied;  after  which  a  stick 
must  be  passed  beneath  the  knot,  and  then,  by  twist- 
ing the  stick,  a  sufticient  pressure  will  be  obtained  to 
arrest  the  bleeding.  This  being  accomplished,  a  sur- 
geon should  be  sent  for  in  all  haste. 

A  w\iunded  vein,  from  which  will  flow  dark  red 
blood,  may  be  secured  in  a  similar  manner,  with  the 
exception  that  the  compress  must  be  placed  on  the 
wound,  as  venous  blood  flows  to  the  heart.  Bleed- 
ing from  a  vein  is  much  more  readily  arrested  than 
that  I'rom  an  artery,  and  in  most  instances,  cold  appli- 
cations are  suflicient  for  the  purpose. 

Suspended  Animation  from  Drowning. — Accidental 
drowning  is  the  next  most  serious  casualty  that  occurs 
in  families;  but  in  many  cases  pending  death  may  be 
averted  by  prompt  and  persevering  effort.  It  is  only 
whfere  a  person  has  been  under  water  for  twenty  minutes 
that  resuscitation  becomes  doubtful.  If  the  patient  is 
warm  about  the  chest,  and  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  con- 
tract by  exposure  to  a  bright  light,  the  case  is  most 
hopeful,  and  should  encourage  continued  exertion  for 
hours,  for  persons  have  been  restored  to  life  after  four 
hours'  effort.  The  greatest  success  attends  those  cases 
in  which  there  is  an  early  application  of  the  proper 


386 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


means  of  resuscitation,  Avitli  wlii^li  every  body  should 
become  familiar,  and  which  are  so  simple,  and  a 
knowledge  of  them  so  easily  acquired,  that  the  most 
dull  of  comprehension  can  readily  be  tauglit  what  to 
do  in  a  case  of  emergency. 

The  first  effort  to  be  made  after  recovering  a  body 
from  the  water  is  to  place  it  on  a  table  or  board, 
stripped  of  the  wet  clothing,  with  the  face  downward 
and  beyond  the  end  of  the  board.  The  head  must  be 
supported  with  one  hand  placed  on  the  forehead,  while 
with  the  other  hand  an  endeavor  must  be  made  to 
draw  out  the  tongue  on  one  side  of  the  mouth ;  after 
which  the  mouth  and  nostrils  must  be  cleansed  from 
adhering  mucus  or  other  obstructions  to  the  air-passa- 
ges. Gentle  pressure  made  once  or  twice  upon  the 
back  w^ill  cause  any  mucus  or  fluid  to  flow  out  of  the 
mouth.  As  might  be  supposed,  the  lungs  do  not  be- 
come engorged  with  water,  so,  at  most,  only  a  small 
portion  will  flow  out.  By  this  means  the  air-pas- 
sages will  be  cleared.  When  this  is  accomplished, 
and  it  ought  not  to  occupy  over  a  minute,  the  body 
must  be  turned  upon  the  back,  with  the  shoulders  and 
head  moderately  elevated.  The  tongue  must  then  be 
drawn  more  forward  so  as  to  project  from  the  mouth, 
and  the  arms  must  be  taken  hold  of  at  the  elbows  and 
moved  forward  and  upward  until  they  nearly  meet 
above  the  head ;  after  this,  the  arms  must  be  brought 
down  to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  compressing  the  sides, 
and  with  the  hand  the  lowxr  portion  of  the  breast- 
bone; then  the  chest  must  be  freed  of  all  pressure, 
and  the  arms  raised  as  before,  repeating  the  process 
about  twelve  times  in  a  minute. 


MEANS  OF  RELIEF  IN  CASES  OF  ACCinENT.  387 


That  the  temperature  of  the  body  may  be  increased, 
warm  blankets  and  friction  with  w^arm  cloths  must  at 
the  same  time  be  perseveringly  applied  to  the  body 
and  lower  extremities  ;  and  hot  water,  not  quite  scald- 
ing, must  be  sprinkled  on  the  chest  and  face  occasion- 
ally. Also,  smelling-salts  or  hartshorn  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  nostrils  until  natural  breathing  is  estab- 
lished ;  but  when  these  are  not  at  hand,  burning  match- 
es are  recommended,  but  they  must  be  used  very  care- 
fully, or  the  sulphurous  fumes  will  be  injurious. 

When  respiration  or  breathing  is  restored,  most 
careful  watching  will  then  be  absolutely  necessary, 
and,  with  the  following  treatment,  must  be  kept  up  for 
many  hours : 

First,  the  patient  must  be  removed  to  a  firm,  com- 
fortable bed  in  an  airy  room,  the  head  and  shoulders 
elevated  to  an  almost  sitting  posture,  and  the  body 
covered  with  warmed  blankets  ;  then  bottles  of  hot 
water  must  be  applied  to  the  thighs,  arm-pits,  and  feet, 
and  mustard-poultices  to  the  abdomen  and  calves  of 
the  legs  ;  and  friction  with  hot  flannels  or  other  cloths 
must  be  kept  up  upon  the  arms  and  legs,  to  improve 
and  maintain  the  circulation,  which  will  be  feeble. 
This  treatment  must  be  continued  as  long  as  the  pulse 
continues  weak. 

Stimulants  and  nourishing  food  are  not  admissible. 
Ginger  tea  and  other  warm  drinks  are  beneficial,  and 
only  light  diet  must  be  given  until  the  patient  has 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  accident.  The  brain 
will  be  more  or  less  oppressed  from  the  impure  blood 
that  will  be  thrown  upon  it,  in  consequence  of  the 
lungs  having  failed  to  perform  their  ofiice  of  purifica- 


388 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


tion,  and,  therefore,  stimulants  or^very  nutritions  food 
might  increase  the  derangement. 

SitffoGaiion  from  Foul  Air. — Accidental  suffocation 
most  frequently  occurs  in  families  through  a  want  of 
knowledge  in  regard  to  the  burning  of  cliarcoal  in  a 
close  room  during  v^ery  cold  weather.  The  emana- 
tion from  the  burning  coal  is  carhoniG  acid  gas^  a 
most  deleterious  air,  wdiich,  from  being  geuerally  void 
of  smell,  is  ver}^  insidious  in  its  eftects.  A  lighted 
candle  will  indicate  the  presence  of  this  foul  air  in 
a  room,  by  burning  very  dimly,  and  it  will  cease  to 
burn  if  the  gas  is  in  great  excess.  This  is  a  test  for 
the  presence  of  the  same  gas  in  caves,  pools,  wells, 
etc.,  wdiere  it  is  generated  froui  other  sources'  than 
that  of  burnini>:  charcoal. 

When  this  gas  is  in  great  excess,  as  it  almost  inva- 
riably is  in  wells  or  cesspools,  its  effect  is  to  instantly 
overpower  a  person  exposed  to  it.  But  where  it  is 
gradually  developed,  as  in  the  case  of  burning  char- 
coal in  a  room,  the  first  effect  is  a  slight  dizziness  and 
an  inclination  to  sleep  ;  and  this  is  followed  by  an  op- 
pressive feeling  in  the  head,  by  impure  blood  being 
carried  to  the  brain,  by  stertorous  breathing,  and, 
finally,  by  a  deadly  sleep.  The  person  then  becomes 
motionless,  and  at  times  apparently  stiff,  but  it  is  not 
always  so ;  still,  the  warmth  of  the  body  usually  re- 
mains natural  for  several  hours. 

The  means  of  relief  to  persons  insensible  from  the 
effects  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  from  whatever  source,  con- 
sists in  at  once  removing  them  to  an  open  exposure  of 
pure  air ;  in  having  them  stripped  of  their  clothing, 
and  in  placing  them  so  as  they  can  be  most  readily 


MEANS  OF  RELIEF  IN  CASES  OF  ACCIDENT.  389 


liaTidled,  laying  tliein  on  tlie  back  with  tlie  shoulders 
and  head  moderately  elevated.  The  arms  and  chest 
must  then  be  exercised  in  the  manner  employed  for 
restoring  respiration  in  persons  partially  drowned, 
and  the  subsequent  treatmen,t  must  be  the  same  as 
that  adopted  m  such  cases. 

Suffocation  f  rom  common  Burning- Gas. — The  gas 
used  for  lighting  our  dwellings  is  carhuretted  hydro- 
gen. When  it  accidentally  escapes  into  a  bed-cham- 
l)er  or  nursery,  it  is  exceedingly  deleterious  to  the  oc- 
cupants, and  will  explode  with  great  violence  if  the 
room  is  entered  with  any  kind  of  flame.  Therefore, 
whenever  the  gas  is  suspected  to  be  escaping,  all 
lights  should  be  extinguished,  and  all  the  doors  and 
windows  of  the  apartments  thrown  open,  when  they 
will  be  cleared  of  gas  in  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 
Should  there  be  any  suffocating  persons  in  the  rooms, 
they  may  be  removed  with  impunity  by  those  entering 
without  a,  light,  as  soon  as  the  doors  can  be  opened. 
Persons  under  the  influence  of  this  gas  should  be 
treated  in  a  precisely  similar  manner  to  those  suffoca- 
ted by  carbonic  acid  gas. 

General  Rules  to  he  observed  in  cases  of  Suffocation, — 
In  all  cases  of  suffocation,  the  first  effort  to  relieve  tlie 
person  is  to  supply  the  lungs  with  pure  air,  and  by 
the  best  possible  means  alternately  to  inflate  them 
and  to  expel  the  air  from  them.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated that,  by  elevating  the  arms  above  the  head,  and 
by  then  pressing  them  against  the  sides  of  the  chest, 
and  at  the  same  time  pressing  the  lower  portion  of  the 
breast-bone,  the  first  movement  will  cause  the  great- 
est possible  amount  of  air  to  enter  the  lungs,  and  the 


390 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


second  will  cause  the  most  perfect  expiration  of  it  to 
be  accomplished,  provided  that  the  tongue  is  drawn 
forward. 

Manipulation,  friction,  and  stimulant  applications 
sliould  be  emph^yed,  even  to  in  a  slight  manner  scald- 
ing the  extremities,  and,  in  desperate  cases,  the  spine ; 
in  fact,  an  effort  should  always  be  made  to  keep  the 
body  and  limbs  warm,  and  to  warm  them  if  cold. 
The  head  should  be  kept  elevated,  so  that  the  impure 
blood  may  flow  the  more  readily  to  tlie  lungs,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  be  purified  by  the  pure  atmospheric 
air,  which  should  be  admitted  into  the  room  freely, 
even  in  cold  weatlier,  opening  the  w^indows  if  neces- 
sary. 

Suffocation  ChoMng. — All  cases  of  suflfocation, 
even  those  of  suspension  by  the  neck,  should  be  treat- 
ed upon  the  principles  liere  stated  ;  as  also  sliould 
cases  of  choking  or  suffocation  from  an  attempt  to 
swallow  too  large  a  portion  of  meat  or  other  substance, 
after  the  obstruction  is  removed  from  the  throat.  For 
this  latter  purpose,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth  and  down  the  throat  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. If  the  substance  is  just  out  of  sight,  it  may  be  de- 
tected and  often  removed  by  the  finger;  or  a  pair  of 
forceps  may  be  directed  to  the  place,  guided  by  a 
finger  of  one  hand,  and  the  obstruction  removed  with 
the  other.  When  the  substance  is  large  and  not  far 
down,  it  may  also  be  extracted  with  a  hook  guided  by 
the  finger,  or  it  may  be  forced  out  of  the  throat  by 
slapping  the  person  on  the  back,  the  body  being  at 
the  same  time  thrown  forward  or  elevated  by  the 
feet,  head  downward.    However,  the  latter  treatment 


MEANS  OF  RELIEF  IS  CASES  OF  ACCIDENT. 


391 


must  not  be  continued  if  it  is  not  immediately  suc- 
cessful. If  the  obstruction  is  far  down  the  throat,  a 
piece  of  strong  whalebone  or  ratan  notched  near  one 
end,  and  a  firm  bulb  of  cotton  covered  with  woven 
material  tied  firmly  to  it  and  smeared  with  any  grease 
at  hand^  must  be  used  to  dislodge  the  substance  by 
forcing  it  into  the  stomach  with  the  end  so  prepared, 
employing  prompt  and  decided  force. 

Sm])ended  Animatioiifrom  Cold. — Continued  expo- 
sure to  cold  beyond  an  ability  to  resist  its  influeuce, 
at  first  produces  a  painful  sensation,  with  numbness  of 
the  extremities ;  then  fallows  a  calmness  and  an  irre- 
sistible inclination  to  sleep,  and  finally  unconscious- 
ness. 

A  person,  when  found  in  this  state,  should  be  wrap- 
ped in  a  blanket  with  the  head  uncovered,  and  con- 
veyed to  a  house,  where  the  clothes  should  be  removed 
in  a  cold  room  ;  the  body  and  limbs  must  then  be  rub- 
bed briskly  with  snow  or  iced  water  for  a  minute  or 
two,  after  which  they  must  be  wiped  with  cold,  damp 
towels,  dipped  at  first  in  spring  water  or  w^ater  that  is 
not  frozen,  and  then  in  water  the  temperature  of 
wdiich  is  gradually  increased  to  that  of  tlie  natural 
heat  of  the  living  body.  When  the  skin  is  improving 
in  temperature,  the  patient  must  be  placed  in  a  cold 
bed  and  covered  with  a  blanket,  and  the  lungs  must 
be  inflated  as  before  described  in  treating  of  suffoca- 
tion from  drowning.  After  recovery,  the  patient  must 
be  kept  in  a  cool  room  comfortably  covered.  If  the 
extremities  are  actually  frozen,  continue  to  occasional- 
ly apply  to  them  cloths  dipped  in  cold  water,  and  be 
very  careful  not  to  use  any  warm  applications  ;  if  thus 


392 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


*:reated,  they  will,  in  most  instaii^-es,  be  restored  to  a 
normal  condition.  In  some  instances,  however,  the  toes, 
fingers,  and  ears  may  be  past  entire  recovery,  and  even 
the  death  of  them  may  ensue;  under  snch  condition, 
a  skillful  surgeon  alone  can  be  relied  upon. 

Extensive  Burns  or  Scalds. — It  nnist  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that,  if  a  burn  or  scald  extends  over  much  sur- 
face, especially  about  the  neck,  breast,  or  upper  por- 
tion of  the  chest,  the  accident  is  dangerous,  and  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth  and  extent  of  the  injury.  "With 
some  it  is  customary  to  apply  cloths  wet  with  cold 
water  to  the  injured  part;  but  such  a  procedure  may 
be  almost  fatal  in  the  case  of  an  extensive  burn,  as 
it  will  create  a  shivering  which  will  rapidly  exhaust 
the  nervous  energy.  Exposure  to  cold  air  produces 
a  similar  effect.  The  proper  course  to  pursue  is  to 
cover  the  surface  as  quickly  as  possible  with  some 
emollient  application,  and  for  this  purpose  molasses 
and  raw  cotton  have  been  used  with  decided  benefit ; 
yet  muslin  dipped  in  molasses  will  answer  a  similar 
purpose.  One  good  quality  that  molasses  dressing 
possesses  is,  that  it  can  be  I'cadily  removed  when  ne- 
cessary, owing  to  the  molasses  being  very  soluble  in 
warm  water.  Another  good  application  is  an  embro- 
cation made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  linseed  oil  and 
lime-water,  into  which  cloths  must  be  dipped  and  ap- 
plied in  divided  portions ;  for  the  whole  surface  of  an 
extensive  burn  should  never  be  exposed  to  the  effect 
of  the  air,  which  is  extremely  irritating  to  the  denuded 
surface  ;  besides,  when  an  extensive  raw  surface  is  ex- 
posed to  the  painful  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
vital  energy  of  the  system  is  most  rapidly  exhausted. 


MEANS  OF  RELIEF  IN  CASES  OF  ACCIDENT.  303 


Too  mncli  care  can  not  be  taken  to  preserve  the 
strength  and  energy  of  the  patient,  and,  therefore, 
frequent  dressing  must  be  avoided  as  ninch  as  possi- 
ble, and,  when  being  dressed,  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  inflamed  snrface  must  be  uncovered  at  a  time,  in- 
variably re-covering  one  portion  before  exposing  an- 
other ;  while  the  patient,  if  so  disposed,  must  be  per- 
mitted to  take  rest  before  the  w^hole  is  completed. 

A  new  application  has  lately  been  introduced  and 
mucli  praised  for  its  soothing  and  liealing  qualities. 
It  is  as  follows:  "  Take  chalk  and  linseed  or  common 
olive  oil,  and  mix  them  in  sucli  proportion  as  will  pro- 
duce a  compound  as  thick  as  honey ;  then  add  vine- 
gar so  as  to  reduce  it  to  the  thickness  of  treacle,  (nio- 
lasses  ;)  apply  witli  a  soft  brush  or  featlier,  and  renew 
the  application  from  time  to  time.  Eacli  renewal 
brings  fresh  relief,  and  a  most  grateful  coolness.  If 
the  injury  is  severe,  especially  if  it  involve  the  chest, 
give  ten. drops  of  laudanum  to  an  adult,  and  repeat  it 
in  an  hour,  and  again  a  third  time.  Tq  a  child  of  ten 
years,  give  in  like  manner  only  three  drops,  and  be- 
ware of  giving  any  to  an  infant.  This  plan,  with  an 
internal  stimulant  according  to  age,  as  brandy  or  sal- 
volatile,  (carbonate  of  ammonia,)  or  both,  should  be  at 
once  adopted  ;  and  there  need  be  no  impatience  for 
the  arrival  of  the  often  distant  doctor."^ 

As  it  regards  the  doctor,  his  presence  should  be  pro- 
cured as  soon  as  possible. 

When  extensive  burns  are  healed,  the  tender  new 
skin  inclines  to  contract,  wdiereby  it  produces  great 

*  Braitlivvaitc's  Retrospect,  part  xlvii.  p.  162,  1863. 


394 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


deformity.  This,  however,  may'^in  a  measure  be  ar- 
rested by  keeping  the  injured  parts  covered  fur 
months,  or  even  a  j^ear  or  more,  with  oiled  silk,  and 
by  fi'equently  anointing  the  parts  with  stramonium 
ointment,  which  can  be  obtained  from  an  apothecary, 
or  is  readily  prepared  by  stewing  the  green  leaves  of 
stramonium  in  lard. 

Syncope  or  Fainting, — Persons  subject  to  fainting 
frequently  give  much  alarm  to  otliers  not  familiar 
with  the  ailment,  which,  after  all,  is  of  but  little  con- 
sequence to  those  susceptible  to  it.  But  persons  who 
faint  from  exhaustion,  fatigue,  long  fasting,  violent 
passion,  severe  pain,  some  friglitful  scene,  or  from  ex- 
treme anguish,  require  immediate  attention.  The 
usual  appearance  in  such  cases  is  a  deadly  paleness 
accompanied  by  insensibility,  while  the  eyes  become 
dim,  the  hearing  is  gone,  a  deep  guttural  groan  es- 
capes the  lips,  the  pulse  stops,  the  breathing  is  imper- 
fect, and  the  voice  fails.  This  condition  must  be  re- 
lieved as  soon  as  possible;  and  to  accomplish  it,  the 
patient's  clothing  must  be  loosed  and  the  body  ex- 
tended on  the  floor  without  elevating  the  head  ;  the 
face  must  then  be  sprinkled  with  cold  water,  and,  if 
convenient,  the  temples  and  about  the  mouth  must  be 
bathed  with  vinegar,  while  a  little  vinegar  and  w^ater 
must  be  given  to  drink,  or  be  put  into  tlie  patient's 
mouth ;  in  addition,  the  feet  and  hands  must  be  sharp- 
ly slapped,  and  smelling-salts  applied  to  the  nose,  but 
not  too  constantly.  These  means,  if  persevered  in,, will 
usually  relieve,  when  a  gentle  stimulant,  such  as  spir- 
its of  camphor  or  brandy,  should  be  administered. 
Poisoning, — When  persons  in  perfect  liealth  aresud 


MEANS  OF  EELIEF  IN  CASES  OF  ACCIDENT.  305 


denlj  attacked  with  sickness  after  partaking  of  food, 
and  especially  if  tlie  food  has  had  a  peculiar  and  un- 
usual taste,  and  when  the  sickness  increases  in  violence 
and  is  attended  by  excessive  nausea,  by  a  burning 
sensation  in  the  throat,  by  a  disposition  to  continued 
vomiting  without  t^ie  ability  to  vomit  freely,  and  by 
a  sense  of  suffocation,  giddiness,  or  unusual  drowsiness, 
it  may  reasonably  be  concluded  that  they  are  labor* 
ing  under  the  effects  of  poison. 

In  violent  attacks  of  ordinary  ailment,  there  is  usu- 
ally some  premonitory  symptom  or  known  cause,  as, 
for  instance,  over-indulgence  in  eating  some  unwhole- 
some food  ;  but  in  such  cases  the  nausea  and  vomiting 
are  unattended  with  a  burning  sensatioixin  the  throat  * 
nevertheless,  there  may  be  severe  pains  and  cramps, 
but  they  are  usually  relieved  by  anodynes,  stimulant 
applications,  or  emetics. 

Emetics  are  nearly  always  admissible  in  cases  of  vio- 
lent attacks  of  pain  in  and  sickness  of  the  stomach.  In 
fact,  emptying  the  stomach  is  the  first  thing  to  be 
done  when  poisons  have  been  taken;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose the  stomacli-pump  is  invaluable,  but  it  is  only 
the  physician  who  can  use  it  successfully.  Still,  much 
may  be  accomplished  by  employing  the  means  at 
hand  to  produce  vomiting,  the  most  effective  of  which 
is  to  freely  give  the  patient  salt  dissolved  in  warm 
water,  about  a  table-spoonful  of  the  former  to  a  pint 
of  the  latter,  or  instead  of  the  salt,  a  similar  quantit  y 
of  mfistard;  and  this  failing,  the  finger  or  the  feather- 
end  of  a  quill  should  be  put  down  the  throat  In  a 
w^ord,  any  thing  that  will  excite  vomiting  may  be  used, 
and  more  especially  if  the  case  is  that  of  a  child  who 


396 


INCENTIVES  TO  HEALTH,  ETC. 


has  been  poisoned  by  eatftig  poisonous  seeds  or  ber- 
ries ;  for  if  they  are  thrown  off,  ninch  relief  will  there 
l)y  be  aftbrded. 

When  much  prostration  or  drowsiness  supervenes, 
fresh-made,  strong,  pure  cotfee,  without  milk  or  sugar, 
should  be  given  freely,  and  the  patient  kept  moving 
till  the  arrival  of  the  doctor,  who,  when  sent  for, 
should  be  requested  to  bring  the  stomach-pump  with 
him. 

Antidotes  for  poisons  can,  with  rare  exceptions,  be 
used  only  by  skillful  physicians ;  for  the  prescribing 
and  advising  of  their  use  by  inexperienced  persons  is 
only  hazarding  the  lives  of  the  unfortunate.  Yet  w^e 
repeat,  in  all  cases  of  poisoning  much  good  may  be 
done  before  the  doctor  can  be  obtained,  even  to  the 
saving  of  life,  by  the  prompt  administration  of  an 
> emetic  and  the  causing  of  immediate  vomiting ;  and 
by  such  action  the  patient  may  even  be  out  of  danger 
before  he  arrives ;  yet  under  no  consideration  should 
any  thing  be  allowed  to  prevent  his  being  sent  for  the 
moment  it  is  discovered  that  poison  has  been  taken. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Aborigines,  tradition  of,  by  Dr.  Franklin,   197 

Accident,  how  suffering  and  death  may  be  averted  in  cases  of,       .      .  383 

Acrolein,  the  result  of  heating  fat,  rendering  it  indigestible,    .      .      .  194 

Adams  and  Barlow's  first  visit  to  America,   234 

Ailments  in  children,  one  of  the  most  prolific  causes  of,    .      .      .      .  142 

Air  as  a  conductor  of  heat,   381 

composition  of,   80 

the  true  index  which  should  regulate  exposure  to  the,       .      .      .  382 

and  light,  advantages  of,  to  health,        .      .      .      ....  3G5 

Alcoholic  drinks  as  a  medicament,   299 

eftects  of,  on  aged  persons,   298 

when  not  to  be  indulged  in,   297 

Ancients,  enforcement  of  laws  by  the,   21 

Animal  body,  formation  and  sustenance  of  the,   47 

sustained  by  assimilation,   85 

various  organs  and  economy  of  the,   102 

Apartments,  ordinary  mode  of  ventilating,   128 

Apple,  history  of  the,   282 

native  crab-apple,   233 

superior  qualities  of  the,   231 

Arrow-root,  whence  obtained  and  for  what  used,   174 

Asparagus,  very  ancient  cultivation  of,   276 

Assimilation  essential  to  growth,   49 

Atmosphere,  electrical  condition  of  the,  and  its  influence  on  animals,     .  107 

sombre  state  of  the,  tends  to  melancholy,     ....  106 

various  influences  from  difi'erent  conditions  of  the,    .        87,  814 

Atmospheric  air,  concentrated  drafts  of,  pernicious  to  health,  .      .      .  331 

influence  of,  upon  spinal  disease,   380 

Barley,  cultivated  by  the  Jews,   215 

cultivated  in  Lulean  Lapland,   216 

Egyptian  traditions  concerning,   215 

importance  of,  compared  with  wheat,     .      .      .      .      .      .  216 

native  country  of,   214 

quantity  converted  into  malt  at  the  present  day,   ....  21P 

very  ancient  use  of,  in  the  preparation  of  liquors,        .      .      .  2n 


398 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Bathing,  advantages  of  local,   340 

antiquity  of,  as  related  in  the  Bible,   328 

cold,  beneficial  in  great  excitement  of  the  skin,  ....  335 

"    impairs  the  vital  organs,   334 

"    injurious  effects  of,       .   330 

in  vrater  at  112°,   337 

mode  of  using  spirit-vapor,   339 

practiced  by  the  Sparlans,   329 

precautionary  measures  to  be  observed  in,   333 

when  most  grateful,   327 

Beans,  how  used  by  the  Hindoos,        .      .   262 

made  into  flour  by  the  Abyssinians,   260 

not  found  in  the  Egyptian  catacombs,   259 

nutritive  qualities  of,   256 

variety  of,  grown  by  the  French  and  Italians,       ....  261 

Beef,  component  parts  of  lean  beef  described,   14t 

Beverages  essential  to  sustenance,   293 

water  the  most  grateful  of,   295  • 

when  they  impair  digestion,   294 

Bile,  composition  of,   97 

and  fat  accumulate  from  eating  food  containing  much  starch,  .      .  100 

Blood  a  medium  of  nutrition,   70 

changed  by  oxygen  gas,   75,  81 

circulation  of  the,  through  the  body,   68 

"         "      within  the  heart,   66 

component  parts  of,   77 

Body,  all  impressions  upon  the,  conveyed  to  the  mind,     ....  48 

structure  of  the,  an  advantageous  study,   40 

Bone,  absorption  of,  when  diseased,  promoted  by  motion  and  attrition,  118 

formation  of,   92 

Bowel  complaints  in  children,  and  means*  of  relief,   143 

Bow-legs,  common  cause  of,   114 

Brain,  brief  description  of  the,   56 

Bread  eaten  by  the  English  laborers  in  the  eighth  century,      ...  223 

first  mention  made  of,  in  the  Bible,   199 

proper  mode  of  making,   206 

grains,  traditions  in  regard  to,    .    197 

producing  grasses  not  indigenous  to  Mexico,   200 

Bronchial  affections,  probable  cause  of,   129 

cells,  quantity  of  air  contained  in  the,   76 

Buckwheat,  qualities  of,  as  a  diet,   244 

varieties  of,   245 

when.introduced  into  Europe,   243 

Burns  or  scalds,  treatment  of,   392 

Butter,  chemical  properties  of,   155 

various  means  of  preserving,   157 

Cabbage,  ancient  cultivation  of,    .      .      .   276 

Caffein  obtained  from  coffee,   306 


INDEX.  309 

PAGE 

Carbon,  how  eliminated,   82 

Carnivorous  animals,  condition  of,  when  confined  in  cages,      ...  99 

Casein,  differs  from  albumen  and  fibrin,   193 

found  in  abundance  in  vegetables  and  milk,   193 

peculiar  properties  of,      .      .      .     '   193 

Celery,  valuable  properties  of,      .      .      .   278 

Cerealia  cultivated  at  an  early  period  of  the  world's  history,   ...  198 

man's  acquaintance  with,   199 

Cheese,  nutritive  qualities  of,       .........  155 

Chest,  cavity  of  the,  described,   7T 

Childhood,  advantages  of  a  proper  regimen  during,   35 

Children,  growth  of,  _   .      .  98 

hardships  endured  by  poor,   361 

■  how  made  hardy,   360 

of  scrofulous  parentage,   38 

of  the  Spartans,  how  trained,   25 

partially  paralyzed,  means  of  preventing  deformity  in,    .      .  144 

Chocolate,  from  what  obtained,                                                      .  318 

how  prepared  by  the  Mexicans,   319 

qualities  of,  as  a  beverage,   320 

Cholera  infantum,  common  cause  of,    .      .      .      .      ...      .      •  42 

Chyle,  chemical  composition  of,   74 

Cities  densely  populated  unfavorable  to  health,  .      .      .      .      .      .  121 

City  habitations,  how  unfavorable  influences  in,  can  be  modified,   .      .  121 

homes,  advantages  that  may  be  secured  in,   120 

Civilization,  advantages  of  the  progress  of,   40  ' 

of  the  ancient  Egyptians,   199 

Clerk  and.  laborer,  comparative  condition  of,   41 

Climate,  influence  of,  over  the  animal  economy,   105 

Clothing,  advantages  of  change  of,   352 

essential  to  health,   341 

evil  effects  of  too  much,   344 

exercise  necessary  with,   346 

how  to  fashion,   351 

influence  of,  on  delicate  persons,   353 

injurious  effects  of  fashionable,   342 

linen,  when  unsuitable  to  be  worn,   348 

suitable  for  summer  wear,    .      .      .      .     " .      .      .      .  347 

when  necessary  for  an  increase  of,   345 

when  not  to  be  removed,   349 

Coffee,  best  mode  of  preparing,   317 

cultivation  of,  ,  316 

first  introduced  into  Syria  from  Persia,   314 

influence  of,  on  the  sick,   89 

injurious  to  plethoric  persons,   318 

introduced  into  England  in  1660,   315 

nutritious  property  of,   306 

unfavorable  to  digestion  when  much  diluted,       .      .      .      .41,  307 


400 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Coffee,  use  of,  as  an  antidote  to  vegetable  poisons,   317 

Cold,  how  the  ailment  is  produced,   881 

suspended  animation  from,  and  means  of  relief,      ....  891 

feet,  injurious  effects  of,   129 

Comforts  in  an  extended  sense,   124 

Condiments,  beneiicial  effeois  of,   321 

injurious  effects  of,   322 

properties  of,   321 

Contractility  the  normal  function  of  muscles,   65 

Cradle,  as  a  means  of  exercise  for  the  babe,   358 

Cream  as  a  diet,   155 

Cripples,  benefit  of  surgical  operations  in  the  treatment  of,     .      .      .  118 

necessity  for  mechanical  support  in  the  treatment  of,       .      .  117 

Defective  organization,  causes  of,   39 

Deformity  in  infants,  causes  of,     ...   166 

how  to  prevent,   350 

Depressing  influences,  effect  of,   354 

Diabetes,  proper  means  of  relief,   173 

result  of  eating  an  excess  of  carbonaceous  food,      .      .      .  172 

Diaphragm  described,   77 

Diet,  Dr.  Playfair's  comparative  value  of,   274 

mixed,  most  conducive  to  health,   99 

suitable  for  different  climates,   87 

iDigestion,  process  of,   76" 

Sir  Wilson  Philip  on,   59 

Disease,  entailment  of,   20 

in  cities,  prolific  cause  of,   ]21 

Disinfectants,  use  of,   123 

Domestic  animals,  history  of,                                             .      .      .  197 

process  of  fattening,   100 

Drinks,  acidulated,  grateful  to  some  persons,   304 

prepared,  effects  of,  upon  diflerent  persons,  .      .      .      .      .  302 

Drowning,  means  of  relief  from,   385 

Drugs  in  beer,  fraudulent  use  of,   220 

Dyspepsia  a  modern  disease,   28 

Eating  to  excess,  effects  of,    .      .      .   125 

Eggs,  chemical  constituents  of,   158 

Electricity  a  means  of  relieving  dormant  powers,   59 

as  a  curative  in  the  treatment  of  disease,   108 

deficiency  of,  during  epidemics,   109 

Electrifying  machine,  description  of  the,   144 

Elemental  substances,  number  of,   81 

Esculent  vegetables,  p/operties  of,   265 

Excessive  toil,  consuming  nature  of,   43 

Excitement,  influence  of,  on  delicate  persons,   376 

injurious  to  children,   34 

Exercise,  active  and  passive,  defined,   364 

active  more  beneficial  than  passive,   366 


INDEX.  401 

PAGE 

Exercise,  commencement  of,   355 

effect  of,  in  regard  to  taking  food,   364 

growtli  and  strength  dependent  upon,   356 

how  beneficial  to  poor  children,   362 

in  the  open  air,  advantages  of,   359 

recreative,  advantages  of,   3G3 

salutary  influence  of,  upon  children,   357 

special  advantages  of,   36T 

Fainting,  means  of  relief  in  cases  of,                                         .      .  394 

Fat  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  body,   ITl 

in  the  animal  body,  use  of,   98 

Feet,  necessity  for  protecting,   348 

Fermentation  arrested  by  heat  and  cold,   18T 

putrefactive,  substances  most  predisposed  to,    .      .      .  187 

several  varieties  of,   185 

vinous,  formation  of,   186 

Fibrin  and  albumen,  qualities  of,   93 

Fingers,  unaccountable  performance  of,  on  musical  instruments,     .      .  57 

Fish,  nutritive  qualities  of,   148 

Flesh  meat,  best  means  of  preparing  for  the  sick,   151 

"     qualities  of,   150 

nutritive  qualities  of,   149 

preserved  in  the  icebergs  of  the  Polar  Sea,   188 

yields  all  the  properties  of  blood,   99 

Fluids  drank  in  excessive  quantities  injurious,  41,  299 

effects  of  an  excess  of,  on  infants,   301 

means  of  preparing,  for  infants,   300 

Food  adapted  to  temperature  of  the  seasons,   137 

diflerence  in  the  requirement  of,  .      .   126 

eaten  by  the  French  laborers  in  1678,   224 

how  injurious  to  children,   357 

limited  quantities  of,  most  conducive  to  health,       ....  Ill 

of  graminivorous  and  carnivorous  animals,   94 

plastic  elements  and  investigation  of,   133 

to  be  nourishing  must  contain  nitrogen,   93 

French  revolution,  diseases  the  results  of  the,   30 

Frightful  scenes,  pernicious  eflects  of,  on  youth,   35 

Fruit,  acids  found  in,      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .  280 

advantages  of,  as  a  diet,   139 

composition  of,  v^hen  unripe,   138 

impositions  practiced  in  the  sale  of,   284 

medicinal  properties  of,   280 

necessary  to  health,   141 

pernicious  effects  of,  when  stale  or  unripe,     .      .      .      .41, 140,  235 

Sickler's  perseverance  in  planting  orchards,   288 

stone,  distribution  of,  in  Southern  Africa  by  Burchell,   ...  287 

"     varieties  of,  .286 

wholesome  diet  when  ripe,   141 


402 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Grain,  description  of,   190 

grinding  of,  in  1296,   224 

supposed  origin  of,      .      .   197 

Grape,  one  of  the  first  fruits  cultivated,   289 

varieties  of,  cultivated,   290 

"     .  indigenous  to  America,   289 

Gravity,  influence  of,  when  exhausted  by  standing,   £65 

Heads  of  families,  responsibility  of,  as  to  the  cleansing  of  their  premises,  122 

Health,  important  requirements  of,   olG 

normal  condition  of,  .      .   135 

Healthy  locations,  advantages  derived  by  removal  to,       ....  127 

Heart,  a  powerful  muscular  organ,   65 

Hereditary  deterioration,  result  of,   118 

disease  can  be  mitigated,   34 

"     means  of  obviating,   36 

predisposition  controllable,   119 

Home,  comforts  of,   41 

influence,  efl"ects  of,   26 

Hops,  where  first  employed  in  breweries,   218 

Human  form,  admirable  arrangement  of  the,   62 

Idleness,  pernicious  efl"ects  of,      .   Ill 

Indian  chief's  wife,  her  reception  of  the  first  voyagers  to  America,       .  234 

Lidian  corn  a  sugar-producing  plant,   237 

extent  of  cultivation  of,                                                .  236 

indigenous  to  America,   233 

obtained  by  Captain  John  Smith  in  1607,       .      ...      .  235 

qualities  of,  as  a  diet,   241 

value  of,  as  a  crop,   238 

Infants,  digestive  organs  of,  how  impaired,   164 

nursing  of,   169 

prepared  diet  for,   161 

proper  food  for,   160 

regulation  to  be  observed  in  administering  food  to,     .      .      .  163 

Inspiration  and  expiration  described,   78 

Intemperance,  pernicious  efl'ects  of,   50 

Jellies,  cause  of  failure  in  making,   184 

Joseph's  interpretation  of  Pharaoh's  dream,   199 

Kohlsalat,  the  cabbage-salad  of  the  Germans,   277 

Labor  and  plain  diet,  advantages  of,   39 

how  to  accomplish  the  greatest  amount  of,   371 

means  of  ameliorating  the  influence  of,  on  man,     ....  373 

when  most  indisposed  to,  and  how  relieved,   375 

when  most  oppressive,   374 

Laborer,  hard  lot  of  the,   41 

Laboring  classes,  means  of  relieving  the  condition  of  the,       ...  44 

liCttuce,  cultivation  of,  by  the  Greeks,   277 

qualities  of,  as  a  diet,   278 

Life  a  continued  series  of  actions,   64 


INDEX.  403 

PAGE 

Locality,  choice  of,  for  enfeebled  children,  .      .      .      .      .      .      .  126 

Longevity,  most  effectual  means  of  obtaining,   STS 

Lungs,  description  of  the,   75 

result  of  oxygen  and  carbon  in  the,  -    .      .  88 

Malt,  process  of  making,  into  beer,   220 

Man,  association  of,  with  domestic  animals,       .      .      .      .      .      .  197 

comparative  view  of  his  health,   19 

improvement  of  his  offspring,   22 

what  his  food  consists  of,   97 

Meat,  juice  of,  when  beneficial,   305 

pernicious  effects  of,  when  stale,   146 

preserved  at  a  temperature  of  212%   188 

proper  modes  of  cooking,   149 

Mental  energy,  exuberance  of,  tends  to  excesses,   60 

Milk,  as  a  nutriment,   96 

chemical  constituents  of,  101, 151 

latest  improvement  in  condensing,   157 

made  into  an  intoxicating  liquid  by  the  Tartars,  ....  188 
of  woman,  nutritive  qualities  of,  under  varied  circumstances,       101, 165 

preparation  of,  for  a  babe,   154 

preserving  of,        .   156 

Millet,  known  to  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,       .      .      .  247 

productiveness  of,   246 

Mind,  influence  of  the,  upon  the  body,  ,      ,  27 

Molasses,  value  of,  for  curing  meat,   255 ' 

Motherfe,  duty  of,  in  giving  nourishment  to  the  babe,       ....  165 

Motion,  involuntary,  independent  of  the  will,   49 

voluntary,  advantages  of,   54 

"       subject  to  the  will,       .   56 

Muscle,  formation  of,   92 

Nerves,  distribation  of  the,   56 

formation  of  the,   92 

Nervous  system,  moving  principle  of  the,   57 

New  diseases,  encroachment  of,                                                     ,  28 

Nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized  substances,   134 

Nurses,  employment  of,  for  infants,                                                 .  167 

Oatmeal  eaten  by  the  Scotch  and  Irish,   223 

Oats,  cultivation  of,  by  the  Celts  and  Egyptians,   222 

Oleaginous  food,  necessity  of,   112 

Opium,  not  to  be  indulged  in,  ,      .      ,  297 

Organic  forms  only  produced  by  a  living  principle,   65 

Organized  food  essential  to  animal  life,   63 

Organs  of  sense,  enjoyment  of  the,   52 

importance  of  the,     ........  58 

Oxygen,  greatest  quantity  inhaled  in  a  cold  climate,   112 

result  of  a  deficiency  of,  in  the  animal  system,    ....  171 

Paralysis,  fruitful  cause  of,   42 

partial,  produced  by  eating  acrid  fruit,   143 


404 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Parents,  sins  of,  visited  upon  their  children,   20 

Parsley,  properties  of,   279 

Passions,  depressing  influence  of  the,   26 

Peach,  history  of  the,   288 

peculiar  growth  of  the,  in  China,   268 

Pear,  varieties  of  the,   284 

wide  distribution  and  ancient  cultivation  of  the,      ....  283 

Peas,  ancient  cultivation  of,   257 

grown  in  the  United  States,   259 

nutritious  qualities  of,    .      .   256 

Spanish  mode  of  cooking,   258 

Physical  powers,  degeneracy  of  the,   21 

training  of  the  young,      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .  26 

Plague,  ravages  of  the,  from  1296  to  1797,   126 

Plums,  species  of,   288 

Political  excitement,  elffects  of,      ...   31  ' 

Poisoning,  antidotes  for,   396 

indications  of,   394 

proper  treatment  in  cases  of,   395 

Popular  influence,  beneficial  efi'ects  of,   24 

Potato,  cultivation  of  the,      .      .   267 

discovery  of  the,                                                               .  266 

means  of  improving  the  quality  of  the,   268 

nutritious  properties  of  the,  and  its  value  as  a  food,    .      .      .  271 

Primary  compounds,   136 

Protein,  definition  and  elemental  constituents  of,   150 

Railroad  cars,  influence  of,  on  health,                                               .  343 

Respiration,  elements  of,   133 

importance  of  active,   86 

Rice,  introduction  of,  into  the  United  States,   226 

known  3000  years  before  the  Christian  era,   228 

qualities  of,  as  a  diet,   230 

Rye,  importance  of,  as  a  crop,   212 

made  into  cakes  in  Sweden,   210 

poisonous  nature  of,  when  diseased,   210 

procured  by  the  Greeks  from  Thrace  and  Macedonia,      .      .      .  209 

production  of,  in  Lapland,   210 

unknown  in  ancient  Egypt,                                               .      .  209 

used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,   213 

Sago,  where  obtained,   175 

Sauerkraut,  a  wholesome  diet,   277 

Scrofula,  confined  apartments  tend  to,   130 

curable  in  children,   32 

influence  of  country  air  favorable  in,   116 

symptoms  of,   115 

tendency  to,  in  densely  populated  cities,   114 

virulent  encroachments  of,   361 

and  rickets  the  result  of  mistaken  care,   117 


INDEX.  405 

PAGE 

•Scrofulous  abf?cesses,  necessity  of  sustenance  for  the  cure  of,  .      .      .  117 

indications  in  children,  and  proper  means  of  arresting  them,  169 

Seasons,  influence  of  the,  on  health,   91 

Seeds,  alimental  qualities  of,   193 

comparative  table  of,   196 

Senses,  gratification  afforded  by  the,   52 

Sensorium  Commune,  the  great  centre  of  perception,       ....  51 

Skin,  impairment  of  the,   333 

important  functions  of  the,   332 

structure  of  the,   331 

Slaves,  introduction  of,  into  the  United  States,   236 

Sorghum,  a  variety  of  millet,   248 

cultivation  of,   248 

valuable  properties  of,   253 

Soups,  effect  of,       .      .      .  41, 305 

Spinach,  ancient  cultivation  of,                                                      .  276 

Starch,  contained  in  the  cells  of  plants,   173 

properties  of,   174 

rendered  soluble  by  cooking,   175 

tendency  of,  to  produce  fat,   176 

Starvation,  cause  of,   113 

Strength,  development  of,  ^    .      .      .  135 

Suffocation  by  choking  and  tlae  means  of  relief,   890 

from  burning  charcoal  and  the  means  of  relief,      .      .      .  388 

from  escaped  gas  in  rooms  and  the  means  of  relief,       .      .  389 

Sugar,  antiseptic  qualities  of,  in  preserving  fruits  and  flesh,     .      .      .  184 

chemical  properties  of  cane,  maple,  milk,  and  grape,    .      .      .  178 

formed  from  starch,   176 

history  of,   181 

manufacture  of,  and  how  improved,   182 

not  nutritious  when  pure,   180 

quantity  consumed  annually  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States, .  177 

tests  of  cane  and  grape,   185 

Tapioca,  plant  from  which  it  is  obtained,   174 

Tea,  effects  of,   41 

gathering  the  leaves  of,  ... .      .      .      ...      .      .      .  310 

introduction  of,  into  Europe,   307 

nutritious  properties  of,   306 

preparation  of,  for  market,   309 

preservation  of  the  good  qualities  of,   312 

quantity  used  and  where  grown,   308 

relieves  intoxication  and  cases  of  poisoning,   312 

varieties  of,   311 

Teething,  tardiness  of,   114 

Temperaments,  manifestation  of,   61 

Thein  obtained  from  tea,   306 

Thoracic  duct  and  lacteals  and  their  ofl&ce,   71 

Tissues,  enumeration  of,   102 


4CK>  INDEX. 

Tobacco,  first  introduction  of,  into  England,  . 

not  to  be  indiili^ed  in,  

quantity  sold  in  1SG5,  

Traveling,  advantages  of,  in  coaches  and  on  horseback,  . 

effects  of  on  the  skin,   .WtO 

favorable  influence  of,  to  health,                                      .  3T7 

Vegetable  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein,  description  of,       ....  134 

food,  properties  of,  Sft,  170 

Vegetables,  how  rendered  unwholesome,     .      .      .      /     .      .  .42,90 

organic  elements  of,  and- their  properties  to  sustain  life,      .  192 

^preserved  at  a  temperatui;^  of  212",   188 

Vertebrae,  spinal  marrow,  and  brain,   «r  55 

Vital  force  an  independent  power,   82 

"    defined,   r  "  .      .      .      .   50 

how  expended,   104 

"    knowledge  of,  not  attainable,   58 

"    subjects  natural  laws  to  its  control,   103 

forces,  organization  and  influence  of,   47 

power,  cumulative,  .      .      .  HlO 

Vocal  organs  described,                                              .     %    f .      ,  78 

Warming  and  ventilating  apartments,  ..      .      .      .      ...      .  127 

Water,  iced,  ?is  a  drink,   302 

"    as  a  sedative,   303 

"    sometimes  injurious,  '    .      .      .      .  304 

power  of,  to  sustain  life,   295 

taken  to  the  exclusion  of  malt  or  spirituous  liquors,     .      .  296 

vapor  of,  its  influence  on  the  animal  system,   109 

Weaning  infants,  proper  time  for,   165 

Wheat,  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Romans,   200 

cultivation  of,   202 

first  brought  to  Peru  by  a  lady,       .......  201 

found  in  the  Egyptian  catacombs,   199 

introduced  into  Mexico  by  a  slave,   200 

nutritious  qualities  of,   202 

structure  of  a  grain  of,   203 

weight  of,  and  result  in  flour,         .      .      .      .      ;      .      .  206 

fl,our,  indigestible  compounds  made  of,   206 

Woman,  strength  of,  developed  b^  rural  labor,  23 

Wounds,  treatment  of,          .            .      .      .      .  •*    .      .      .      .  384 

Yeast,  preparation  of,     ...     .     .   208 


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